a federally sponsored corporation that insures your money up to the insurance limit
division of power among federal and state governments
money placed in a financial account, such as a checking or savings account
useful if you have few bills and limited debit card uses
checking services without monthly service fee or per item fee
money lent to you by the bank in case of an overdraft
bill is automatically paid by the bank on a predetermined date
a system of transferring money from one bank to another
a scam in which a fraudulent Web site is used to gain personal and financial information
an identifying number unique to your vehicle
to lose value
used in lieu of purchasing a vehicle; used by individuals or companies that don’t expect to drive many miles
agreement for coverage of needed repairs for a specified time
money set aside for repairs or damage to a rental unit beyond normal wear and tear
makes it illegal for a landlord to discriminate against a potential tenant because of that person’s race, sex, national origin, or religion
lessee
landlord
a situation where the holder of a mortgage is able to take back and sell the property
the amount borrowed
a taking of your personal information for fraudulent purposes
exact position on Earth in terms of longitude and latitude
location of a place relative to another place
mix of human and nonhuman features at a given location
area with at least one unifying physical or human feature such as climate, landforms, population, or history
how people, goods, and ideas get from one place to another
how people affect their environment and how their environment affects them
the scientific study of ancient cultures through the examination of artifacts and other evidence
the study of the origins and development of people and their societies
a community’s cultural and historical background, passed down in spoken stories and songs
the design and construction of buildings
person who designs buildings
a subject or idea that relates to the entire world
art forms meant to be seen, such as painting, sculpture, and photography
written work such as fiction, poetry, or drama
an art form that uses sound, usually produced by instruments or voices
strategy of investing on a regular schedule over a period time
plan that shows income and expenses over a period of time
act of setting aside money for future use
price paid for borrowing money
arrangement in which a buyer can purchase something and pay for it over time
act of using money in the hopes of making a future profit
certificate issued by a company or government promising to pay back borrowed money with interest
legal member of a country
study of the rights and responsibilities of citizens
legal process in which immigrants become citizens
legal process of renouncing citizenship voluntarily
process of losing citizenship due to fraud or deception
process by which people are legally forced to leave the country
formal request for the government to do something
traits of citizens that help societies succeed and operate fairly
activities having to do with one’s society and community
group focused on influencing policy related to a specific concern
movement of new settlers and their culture to an area
people’s basic liberties, such as freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and trial by jury
growth of machine-powered production and manufacturing
residential area on the edge of a city or large town
interest earned on both the amount of money put into an account and on the previously built-up interest
money placed aside for retirement that is not taxed until it is removed at the time of retirement
money set aside for a specific period of time that earns interest
type of checking account with a high yield that has check-writing privileges
a retirement fund where contributions are taxed prior to investment
hot, innermost layer of Earth, made mainly of metal
thick middle layer of Earth
thin, outermost layer of Earth, made mainly of rocks and minerals
layer of gases that surrounds Earth
financial report card
a credit score between 300 and 900
sets terms on how credit information about you can be gathered and used
requires creditors to correct errors without lowering your credit rating
predetermined interest rate placed on credit
requires banks to provide complete information on the APR, fees, and surcharges
similar to credit card but money comes directly out of a pre-established account
money repaid at regularly scheduled intervals
the inability to repay bills
law designed to protect against unfair consumer practices
a place where culture traits develop
an idea or way of doing things that is common in a certain culture
a behavior that is considered normal in a particular society
a group of people who share cultural traits such as language, music, food, and religion
a group of people with similar physical traits, such as skin color, facial features, and hair texture
the belief that all people in a nation are a distinct group, regardless of ethnicity or race
geographic areas that have been shaped by people
an area in which a single culture or cultural trait is dominant
variety of different kinds of living things in a region or ecosystem
waste that makes the air, soil, or water less clean
effect on someone or something not involved in an activity
precipitation that is more acidic than normal
scientist who studies human populations
number of live births per 1,000 people in a year
number of deaths per 1,000 people in a year
number of infant deaths per 1,000 births
spread of a population over an area of land
measure of the number of people per unit of land
the process of building stable governments, improving agriculture and industry, and raising the standard of living
country with a strong economy and a high quality of life
country with a less-productive economy and a lower quality of life
the total value of all goods and services produced in a nation within a particular year
amount of goods and services produced given the amount of resources used
study of how people meet their wants and needs
having a limited quantity of resources to meet unlimited wants
cost of what you have to give up when making a choice
desire for a particular good or service
amount of a good or service that is available for use
a summary of the goals of a business and a step-by-step plan for reaching those goals
person or business that makes and sells products
person or business that buys, or consumes, products
industry involved in growing plants and raising animals for food, fuel, clothing, and other products
industry that sells goods in large quantities or in bulk, usually to businesses
industry made up of people or businesses that sell goods directly to consumers for a profit
industry that produces the goods that are sold by retail stores
industry that provides a service to customers
factor that encourages people to behave in a certain way
group of plants and animals that depend on each other and their environment for survival
large area dense with trees and undergrowth
tree that loses its leaves in the fall
tree that produces cones to carry seeds
large area covered with grasses
large area covered with bushes, shrubs, and low-lying plants
park-like landscape of grasslands with scattered trees that can survive dry spells, found in tropical areas with dry seasons
study of the human and nonhuman features of Earth
north, east, south, and west
round-shaped body
distance north or south of the Equator measured in degrees
unit that measures angles
one half of Earth
distance east or west of the Prime Meridian measured in degrees
a group of people who have the power to make and enforce laws for a country or area
a system of basic rules and principles by which a government is organized
government only has powers granted by the people through the Constitution
government in which there are no effective limits on government actions
the unjust use of power
total amount of money earned during a pay period
the amount a paycheck is made out for
earnings that come out of your paycheck before you receive it
money taken out of your earnings and set aside with the government for retirement
something that is truthful and verifiable
the study of history based on a critical analysis of sources, author's perspective, and research methodology
presenting information from one side of an issue, or basing the information on emotion instead of facts
a reply or rebuttal to an argument
events surrounding a particular event
information that comes directly from a person who experienced an event
an object made by a human being, such as a tool or a weapon
information about an event that does not come from a person who experienced that event
large amount of related information organized for easy access on a computer
knowledge and personal experiences
a special-purpose map that provides information about a place or certain time in history
belt of rising air near the Equator
intense rainstorm with strong winds that forms over tropical oceans
tropical cyclone that forms over the Atlantic Ocean
swirling funnel of wind with speeds up to 300 miles (500 km) per hour
section of a map that explains the map’s symbols and shading
an inset map that shows a larger area than the main map
section of a map that shows how much distance on the map represents a given distance on the land
diagram of a compass showing direction
map that shows physical, or natural, features
height above sea level
map that show political units, such as countries or states
map that shows the location or distribution of human or physical features
a set of spoken sounds, written symbols, or hand gestures that make it possible for people to communicate
organized way for producers and consumers to trade goods and services
money a company has left over after subtracting the costs of doing business
act of concentrating on a limited number of goods or activities
struggle among producers for consumers’ money
economic cycle that involves a rapid rise in prices linked to a sharp increase in the amount of money available
decline in economic growth for six or more months in a row
movement of people from one place to another
to migrate out of a place
to migrate into a place
cause of migration that pushes people to leave their home country
cause of migration that pulls, or attracts people, to new countries
useful material found in the environment
resource that can be replaced in a relatively short period of time
resource that cannot be replaced in a relatively short period of time
nonrenewable resource that forms over millions of years from the remains of dead plants and animals
path one object makes as it travels around another object
complete journey around the sun
imaginary line running through Earth between the North and South Poles
period during which hours of daylight and hours of darkness are of equal length everywhere on Earth
period during which hours of daylight are longest in one hemisphere and shortest in the other hemisphere
theory that explains how huge blocks of Earth’s rocky crust and upper mantle slowly move over time
huge block of rock made up of Earth’s crust and upper mantle
crack in Earth’s crust
molten rock found under Earth’s surface
area north of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle; also know as high latitudes
area north of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle; also know as polar zone
area between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn; also know as low latitudes
area between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn; also know as tropics
area between the high and low latitudes; also know as middle latitudes
area between the high and low latitudes; also know as temperate zone
height above sea level
a system of worship and belief, including belief about the nature of a god or gods
plan designed to protect you against financial losses
individual or entity named as the recipient of a death benefit
the amount you must pay before insurance coverage begins
a monetary amount you are responsible for as part of an insurance claim
statistics that predict whether someone is likely to be a bad risk
a health insurance plan that allows you to choose a primary care physician
one complete turn of an object on its axis
an area sharing the same time
relative size
photographic image of Earth’s surface taken from the air
picture of Earth’s surface taken from a satellite in orbit
computer-based system that stores and uses information linked to geographic locations
network of satellites used to pinpoint locations on Earth with great accuracy
map that is stored in a computer, cell phone, or other type of technology
loss of accuracy
way to map Earth on a flat surface
the active process of acquiring knowledge of the natural world
supply water to
the level of material goods and services available to people in a society
the skills and tools people use to meet their basic needs
a group of humans with a shared culture who have organized themselves to meet their basic needs
two or more people who are closely related by birth, marriage, or adoption
family unit consisting of parents and children
a family that includes parents, children, and other family members, such as grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins
a pattern of organized relationships among groups of people within a society
the process that teaches people the rules, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors that are acceptable in society
a society in which people of many cultures live together
a wide variety
the social position of a person in a community
the division of society into social classes
a group of people living in similar economic conditions
the traits that a culture associates with males and females
supreme authority or power
a set of goals describing how a country’s government plans to interact with other countries’ governments
a formal agreement between two or more countries
managing communication and relationships between countries
a region that shares a common government
a state containing several countries
a state that is independent of other states
a form of government in which citizens hold political power
a form of government in which the state is ruled by a monarch
a government in which all power is held by a single person or a small group
a line marked off with a series of events and dates
a list of events in the order in which they occurred
a length of time singled out because of a specific event or development that happened during that time; also known as an era or epoch
series of years that is distinct in events or character; also known as a period or an epoch
use of precise dates to identify an event, including the day, month, and year
study of history based on the relationships among events
the period of time before writing was invented
exchange of goods and services in a market
a society’s ability to produce a product most efficiently given all the products it could produce
good or service produced within a country and sold outside the country’s borders
good or service sold within a country, but produced in another country
tax on imports or exports
something that keeps goods and services from entering a country
trade between countries without quotas, tariffs, or other restrictions
economy in which people make economic decisions based on their customs and habits
economy in which individual consumers and producers make all economic decisions
economy in which the central government makes all basic economic decisions
economy that combines elements of traditional, market, and command economic systems
practice of making high-risk investments with borrowed money in hopes of getting a big return
climate with hot temperatures and heavy rainfall year-round
climate with a distinct wet season and dry season
climate with year-round precipitation, mild winters, and hot summers
climate with year-round precipitation, mild winters, and cool summers
climate with limited precipitation, cool summers, and very cold winters
dry climate
very dry desert climate
climate with cool summers and bitterly cold, dry winters
permanent sheet of ice covering land or sea
cost of attending a private or public university
a written summary of your educational and work experiences
a system in which a central government makes all laws for the entire country
a system in which power is divided among central, regional, and local governments
located in cities
settlement in the countryside
movement of people from rural area to cities
poor, overcrowded urban neighborhood
spread of suburbs away from the core city
the movement of water from Earth’s surface to the atmosphere and back again
to change from a liquid into a gas
condition of the air and sky at a certain time and place
average weather of a place over many years
water that falls to the ground as rain, snow, sleet, or hail
measure of how hot or cold the air is
process that breaks down rock into tiny pieces
process that moves small pieces of rock and other Earth materials from place to place
process of dropping eroded material in a new place
large area of flat or gently rolling land
large, mostly flat area that rises above the surrounding land
stretch of low land between mountains or hills
triangular area of marshland formed by deposits of silt at the mouth of some rivers
a device used for counting and calculating by sliding small balls or beads along rods or in grooves
Abbas the Great (1571–1629) was the shah of the Safavid dynasty from 1588 until his death. He drove Ottoman and Uzbek troops from Persia and sponsored a golden age of Persian arts and achievement.
dynasty that ruled in Baghdad from 750 to 1258
give up or step down from power
the campaign against slavery and the slave trade
According to Jewish tradition, Abraham is the ancestor of the Jewish people. From the city of Ur and the son of an idol merchant, Abraham made a special covenant with God. Abraham led his descendants to Canaan, which Jews consider their Promised Land.
one who owns a large estate but does not live there
a form of government in which a ruler has complete authority over the government and lives of the people he or she governs
the belief of complete and unrestricted power in government
style of art composed of lines, colors, and shapes, sometimes with no recognizable subject matter at all
Abu Bakr (573–634) was Muhammad’s father-in-law and the first Muslim caliph, or leader, following Muhammad’s death. An early convert to Islam, Abu Bakr advised Muhammad and traveled on the hijra with the prophet. He helped unite the Muslim people through his role as successor to Muhammad. Under his rule, the Muslim empire expanded.
the blending of two or more cultures
a form of pollution in which toxic chemicals in the air come back to Earth in the form of rain, snow, or hail
highest and most fortified point within a Greek city-state
medical treatment, originated in ancient China, in which needles are inserted into the skin at specific points to relieve pain or treat various illnesses
Konrad Adenauer (1876–1967) served as the first chancellor of West Germany, from 1949 to 1963. He led West Germany during its recovery and reconstruction after World War II. His accomplishments included West Germany’s entry into NATO and the founding of the European Economic Community.
a mixture of clay and plant fibers that becomes hard as it dries in the sun and that can be used for building
strategic trading port of the kingdom of Axum
an Islamic country in Central Asia; invaded by the Soviet Union in 1979; later home to the radical Islamist Taliban and the terrorist group al Qaeda
(born around 1460–died 1542), was the ruler of Kongo, a historical kingdom in west-central Africa, in the early 16th century. Afonso encouraged trade with Portugal, promoted European culture in his kingdom, and adopted Christianity as the state religion and as his own religion.
the main organization that opposed apartheid and pushed for majority rule in South Africa; later a political party
group that seeks to influence the government by winning elections
giant commercial farm, often owned by a multinational corporation
Hindu belief in nonviolence and reverence for all life
ship that accommodates the taking off and landing of airplanes, and transports aircraft
Akbar (1542–1605) is considered by most to be the greatest of the Mughal emperors of India. He extended the empire over most of India, and maintained an efficient centralized government through policies that won the loyalty of non-Muslim subjects. His greatness was also built on his support of scholars, artists, and musicians, who made his court a center of culture.
Akhenaton was king of Egypt for 17 years. He abandoned traditional Egyptian polytheism and established a new cult dedicated to the Aton, the sun’s disk. His attempt to start a new religion died with him in 1336 B.C.
a fundamentalist terrorist organization founded and led by Saudi Arabian Osama bin Laden until his death in 2011
al-Khwarizmi (c. 780–c. 850) was a Muslim mathematician who developed groundbreaking concepts related to the study of algebra and introduced the term algebra, or al-jabr. Through his writings, he introduced Europeans to the study of this branch of mathematics. Working in the field of geography as well, al-Khwarizmi also supervised the production of one of the earliest maps of the world.
Afonso de Albuquerque (1453–1515) was a Portuguese admiral who helped found Portugal’s trade empire in the East. He captured and built strategic forts at Goa, Calicut, Malacca, and Hormoz; reconstructed other forts; set up shipbuilding and other Portuguese industries in India; and built churches.
Alexander II (1818–1881), son of emperor Nicholas I, became tsar in 1855. Alexander II assumed power in the middle of the Crimean War, which revealed Russia’s backwardness. He instituted broad modernizing reforms, including emancipating the serfs in 1861. However, growing internal rebellion and increased revolutionary activity in Poland led Alexander to enact repressive measures. He was assassinated in 1881.
Alexander the Great (356 B.C.–324 B.C.), Philip II’s son and Aristotle’s pupil, at age 20 became heir to Philip’s territories. He conquered the Persian empire, founding new cities as his armies won victories in Asia Minor, Palestine, and Egypt, and then captured Babylon. Continuing eastward into India, his tired troops refused to go farther. Returned to Babylon, Alexander, age 32, died from a sudden fever.
Alexandria, founded in 332 B.C. by Alexander the Great, became one of the greatest cities of the Mediterranean world. Located in Egypt on the sea lanes between Europe and Asia, Alexandria became known for its size, great markets, huge Pharos lighthouse, and the Museum, a learning center with a famous library.
Dante Alighieri (1265–1321) was a philosopher, writer, and poet who was deeply involved in Italian politics, including the battles between the popes and monarchs of his time. He held political offices at different times throughout his life. Although he wrote many poems and other works, he is known best for Divine Comedy.
formal agreement between two or more nations or powers to cooperate and come to one another’s defense
writing system in which each symbol represents a single basic sound
region of northern Europe on the border between France and Germany, which was ceded to Germany after the Franco-Prussian War
Amon-Re was considered the king of the gods. He was present in the mythology and culture of the Egyptian people from their beginning.
an incident in 1919 in which British troops fired on an unarmed crowd of Indian protestors in the northern Indian town of Amritsar
a person who wants to abolish all government
old order system of government in pre-revolutionary France
drug that prevents pain during surgery
the belief that spirits and forces live within animals, objects, or dreams
add a territory to an existing state or country
union of Austria and Germany
prejudice against Jews
a policy of rigid racial segregation in the Republic of South Africa
leader or teacher of a new faith or movement
policy of giving in to an aggressor’s demands in order to keep the peace
a young person learning a trade from a master
in ancient Rome, underground or bridge-like stone structure that carried water from the hills into the city
Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) was a philosopher, theologian, and monk who helped bridge the gap between medieval faith and the philosophy of reason promoted by Greek philosophy. He also explained the idea of natural law, that there are universal laws based on reason that are independent of laws passed by government.
Benigno Aquino, Jr., (1932–1983) was the opposition leader during Ferdinand Marcos’s dictatorship of the Philippines. His career in politics included terms as a provincial governor and senator, but when he planned to run for president in 1973, Marcos threw him in jail. Aquino spent eight years on death row but was then released to the U.S. to receive heart surgery. In 1983, Aquino returned to the Philippines and was assassinated at the Manila Airport. The military conspiracy against the popular politician led to support for his wife, Corazon Aquino, who proceeded to defeat Marcos in a presidential election.
explanation of an event or situation that claims it is a secret plot
verifying the accuracy of information in a source by checking other sources
Corazon Aquino (1933–2009) was president of the Philippines, restoring democracy after Ferdinand Marcos’s reign. Educated in the U.S., Aquino married politician Benigno Aquino and focused on raising their children. She accompanied her husband during his exile in the U.S., and when he was executed upon his return to the Philippines, people rallied behind her. She won in a presidential election against Marcos and soon after reestablished congress and appointed a team to write a new constitution. Though Aquino restored freedom to the Philippines, many of her policies were unpopular, and she lost the presidency to her defense secretary in 1992.
Yasir Arafat (1929–2004) fought for Palestinian independence most of his life. He was a founder of Al-Fatah, a group that resisted Israel, and also of the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO). In 1969, he became chairman of the PLO. In the early 1990s, he reached a peace agreement with Israel. In 1994, together with Shimon Peres and Yitzhak Rabin, he won the Nobel Peace Prize. He then became the president of the newly created Palestinian Authority.
Archimedes (c. 287 B.C.–c. 212 B.C.), a famous Hellenistic mathematician and inventor from Syracuse, a Greek colony (now in Italy), is known for understanding the principle of levers, discovering the relation between the surface and volume of a sphere, and inventing the Archimedes screw, a device for raising water.
chain of islands
government headed by a privileged minority or upper class
Aristotle (384 B.C.–322 B.C.), a student of Plato, was a philosopher, writer about many branches of knowledge, founder of the Lyceum, and tutor of Alexander the Great.
fleet of ships
agreement to end fighting in a war
manmade object that orbits a larger body in space
a skilled craftsperson
kingdom that emerged in the 1700s in present-day Ghana and was active in the trade in enslaved people
a peninsula in western Asia between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea
Ashoka, who died about 238 B.C., was the last major Mauryan emperor in India. A committed Buddhist, he helped to spread Buddhism throughout India. His rule was characterized by fairness, compassion, and the principles of right life, which he had inscribed on stone pillars erected throughout the empire.
murder of a public figure, usually for political reasons
a production method that breaks down a complex job into a series of smaller tasks
absorb or adopt another culture
Atatürk (1881–1938) is the name that Mustafa Kemal gave himself when he ordered all Turkish people to take on surnames. In 1920, he led Turkish nationalists in the fight against Greek forces trying to enforce the Treaty of Sèvres, establishing the borders of the modern Republic of Turkey. Once in power, he passed many reforms to modernize, Westernize, and secularize Turkey.
belief that there is no god
city-state in ancient Greece that evolved from a monarchy to a limited direct democracy and became famous for its great cultural achievements
agreement in which Franklin Roosevelt and Winston Churchill set goals for the defeat of Nazi Germany and for the postwar world
in Hindu belief, a person’s essential self
horrible act committed against innocent people
Augustine (A.D. 364–A.D. 430) was a Christian scholar whose written works had long-lasting effects on the Christian religion. He studied in Roman Africa and went on to become a bishop.
(63 B.C.–14 A.D.) was the first Roman emperor of the newly established Roman empire. Augustus’s rule began a long-lasting period of peace and wealth known as the Pax Romana.
a group of three German concentration camps and extermination camps in southern Poland, built and operated during the Third Reich
system of government in which an individual or a small group of individuals rules with unlimited power
ruler who has complete authority
having unlimited power
self-rule
group of countries led by Germany, Italy, and Japan that fought the Allies in World War II
trading center and powerful ancient kingdom in northern present-day Ethiopia
in the Inca empire, a close-knit village
Babur (1483–1530) was the founder of the Mughal Dynasty in India. He came from Turkish and Mongol heritages, a descendent of the great Mongol leader, Genghis Khan. His name is the Arabic word for “tiger,” but he was as accomplished a poet as he was a warrior. His wise rule helped launch a powerful Muslim dynasty that had a permanent influence on northern India.
Francis Bacon (1561–1626) was a distinguished English philosopher, statesman, and lawyer. A man of many talents, he promoted rational thought. Bacon was held in high regard by philosophers and scientists in Europe as well as England.
capital city of present-day Iraq; capital of the Muslim empire during Islam’s golden age
distribution of military and economic power that prevents any one nation from becoming too strong
difference between how much a country imports and how much it exports
statement issued by the British government in 1917 supporting the idea of a homeland for Jews in the Palestine Mandate
triangular arm of land that juts from southeastern Europe into the Mediterranean
nation east of India that was formerly part of Pakistan
root language of West Africa on which some early African migration patterns are based
Frederick Barbarossa (c. 1123–1190) was a German king who became Holy Roman Emperor in 1152. He fought hard against growing papal authority and led six expeditions into Italy in an attempt to increase his royal holdings. He died while on the Third Crusade.
ornate style of art and architecture popular in the 1600s and 1700s
economic system in which one set of goods or services is exchanged for another
fortress in Paris used as a prison; French Revolution began when Parisians stormed it in 1789
during World War II, the forced march of Filipino and American prisoners of war under brutal conditions by the Japanese military
battle in 732 in which the Christian Franks led by Charles Martel defeated the Muslim armies and stopped the Muslim advance into Europe
a desert-dwelling Arab nomad
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827) was a German composer trained in piano and violin by his father Johannes. At the age of 12, he published his first work and began playing viola in the symphony orchestra in Bonn, Germany. In 1792, he went to Vienna and began studying with Haydn. Beethoven remained in Vienna, where he wrote most of his symphonies, concertos, sonatas, and string quartets. Although he began to lose his hearing 1798, he continued to compose music he could hear only in his mind.
rules drawn up in 530 by Benedict, a monk, regulating monastic life. The Rule emphasizes obedience, poverty, and chastity and divides the day into periods of worship, work, and study
Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) was a British philosopher and economist who advocated for utilitarianism, the belief that right and wrong can be measured by the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people. Bentham was trained in the law but did not become a practicing lawyer. Instead, he focused on legal reforms. Not content to simply suggest new laws, he also detailed plans for how to implement his proposals. His ideas were influential during his lifetime, and some of his reforms were enacted.
Henry Bessemer (1813–1879) was a British inventor and engineer. His greatest invention was the Bessemer Converter, which could create high-quality steel quickly and inexpensively. In 1956 he patented his process for making steel. His process was essential to advances in transportation, construction, and defense. Today, steel is still made by a method based on the Bessemer process.
region of southeastern Nigeria that launched a failed bid for independence from Nigeria in 1966, resulting in a bloody war
the application of biological research to industry, engineering, and technology
an error in reasoning
high-ranking Church official with authority over a local area, or diocese
Otto von Bismarck (1815–1898) worked briefly as a civil servant before his career in government. He served as a diplomat to the German Federation, and he became chancellor of the German Empire in 1871, a position he held for 19 years.
an epidemic of the bubonic plague that ravaged Europe in the 1300s
any member of the militant combat squads of Italian Fascists set up under Mussolini
lightning war
a group of nations acting together in support of one another
(1899–1902) a war in which Great Britain defeated the Boers of South Africa
Dutch farmers who settled in Cape Town, Africa, and eventually migrated inland
Simón Bolívar (1783–1830) was a South American soldier and leader who was instrumental in the revolutions against Spain. He was born into wealth and educated in Spain. After France invaded Spain, he became involved in the resistance movement and played a key role in the Latin American fight for independence. He died in 1830 from tuberculosis.
Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821) was a huge figure in European history. He was a military genius who was elected consul for life. He later crowned himself France’s emperor. His legal, educational, and militaristic reforms impacted French society for generations.
the middle class
anti-foreign movement in China from 1898–1900
landowning noble in Russia under the tsars
refuse to buy
Robert Boyle (1627–1691) was one of the leading minds of the late 1600s. An English-Irish philosopher and writer, Boyle focused on chemistry, physics, and natural history. His work with pressurized air led to the development of Boyle’s Law, which describes the relationship between pressure and the volume of gas. Boyle was one of the founders of the Royal Society of London.
Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) was a Danish astronomer who produced the most accurate measurements and locations of the stars before the use of the telescope. His observation that a new star had appeared in an existing constellation challenged the belief that the stars were fixed and forever unchanging.
in the belief system established in Vedic India, a single spiritual power that resides in all things
Leonid Brezhnev (1906–1982) led the Soviet Union from 1964, when he organized the removal of Nikita Khrushchev, until his death in 1982. He presided over the Soviet Union’s last arms build-up and the economic stagnation that encouraged the reforms of Mikhail Gorbachev.
system of government through departments and subdivisions administered by officials who follow set rules
code of conduct for samurai during the feudal period in Japan
Lord Byron (1788–1824) was a member of the House of Lords, a political and social satirist, and one of the most memorable, fashionable, and captivating Romantic poets. He became the model for the Romantic hero and the embodiment of the movement. Byron believed in liberty, which he often focused on in both his works and deeds. Although Byron died before he completed his poem Don Juan, it is considered to be his masterpiece and one of England’s great long poems.
parliamentary advisors to the king who originally met in a small room, or cabinet
John Cabot (c. 1450–c. 1499) had his early roots in Venice, Italy, working in a mercantile firm. He became a navigator and explorer who, during 1497–1498, claimed parts of Canada for Britain.
(c. 100 B.C.–44 B.C.) was a Roman general, master of political maneuvers, and a reformist. He advocated for the re-organization of Rome’s government. In 47 B.C., he became dictator, and three years later was assassinated.
notebooks used in pre-revolutionary France to record grievances
in Illinois, the largest earthwork of the Mississippian culture, c. A.D. 700
a branch of mathematics in which calculations are made using special symbolic notations, developed by Isaac Newton
successor to Muhammad as political and religious leader of the Muslims
the art of producing beautiful handwriting
John Calvin (1509–1564) was a French theologian and lawyer. Influenced by the humanist philosophy of Erasmus, Calvin became involved with the Protestant movement while a student at the University of Paris. He later moved to Geneva, Switzerland, where he set up a theocracy and wrote Institutes of the Christian Religion. Calvin’s interpretation of Christian doctrine is called Calvinism.
body of laws of a church
recognize a person as a saint
the first permanent European settlement in Africa, established by the Dutch in 1652
money or wealth used to invest in business or enterprise
crime punishable by death
economic system in which the means of production are privately owned and operated for profit
Lázaro Cárdenas (1895–1970) joined the revolutionary forces when he was 18 and later became a general in the Mexican army. After the revolution, he served as governor of Michoacán and then as president of the PNR. In 1934, he was elected president of Mexico. During his presidency, Cárdenas worked to establish the social and economic reforms the revolutionaries had fought for, including the redistribution of land, the organization of confederations for both workers and peasants, and the nationalization of foreign-owned industries.
Venustiano Carranza (1859–1920) served as a leader in the Mexican Revolution in support of political, rather than social, reform. He was elected the first president after the revolution, and though he signed the Constitution of 1917, he did little to implement promised reforms. This reluctance led to social unrest and economic difficulties. When a rebellion began in April 1920, Carranza fled the capital and eventually went into hiding in the mountains. He was betrayed and murdered in May.
a group of companies that join together to control the production and price of a product
Jacques Cartier (1491–1557) is credited with naming Canada. He is also recognized for his limited exploration of the St. Lawrence River, stopped short by severe weather and hostile Iroquois Indians.
a person who makes maps
in traditional Indian society, an unchangeable social group into which a person is born
Castiglione (1478–1529) was an Italian courtier, diplomat, and writer. His handbook, The Book of the Courtier, was widely read for its advice on the manners, skills, learning, and virtues that court members should display. He described an ideal courtier as well-mannered, well-educated, and multitalented.
Fidel Castro (b. 1926) served as leader of Cuba beginning in 1959, when he led the Cuban Revolution and installed a communist regime. During the Cold War, Castro’s Cuba was allied with the Soviet Union and, therefore, at odds with the United States. His policies remained socialist after the fall of the Soviet Union. When his health began to fail in 2006, his brother, Raul, took over as the Cuban leader.
one of the world’s first villages, established in modern-day Turkey around 7000 B.C.
waterfall
Catherine the Great (1729–1796) was the German-born empress of Russia (1762–1796) who led her country in becoming part of the political and cultural life of Europe.
military dictator in Latin America
Camillo Cavour (1810–1861) was the second son of a noble family. After a brief career in the military, he decided that politics was his true strength. His ability to manipulate political situations to further the cause of Italian unification made him a valuable leader.
Nicolae Ceausescu (1918–1989) led the communist government in Romania from 1965 until his death in 1989. His regime was noted for its massive corruption, crippling economic conditions, and unchecked secret police. He was executed, along with his wife, Elena, after the coup that ended communist rule in Romania.
porcelain made in Korea with an unusual blue-green glaze
restriction on access to ideas and information
population count
Miguel de Cervantes (1547–1616), a Spanish novelist, playwright, and poet, was the most important figure in Spanish literature. His novel Don Quixote is his most well-known work.
Samuel de Champlain (1567–1635) was a French navigator and explorer who established the colony of Quebec in 1608. He became known as the “Father of New France” and was honored by the court of King Henry IV.
the highest official of a monarch, prime minister
written symbols in writing systems such as that of the Chinese
Charlemagne (747–814), (or “Charles the Great”) king of the Franks, the Lombards, and emperor of the Romans, began as a warrior king seeking to conquer territory and distribute plunder in the Frankish tradition. But he also strove to unite and govern an increasingly diverse collection of conquered peoples as well as cope with threats from new invaders. He conducted a long series of successful military campaigns, made efforts to spread Christianity and implement religious reform, sought to make more effective inherited political institutions and procedures, and supported cultural renewal through a revival of learning.
Charles I (1600–1649) was the second Stuart king of England, Scotland, and Wales. His belief in the divine right of kings brought him into constant conflict with Parliament. This conflict eventually led to the English Civil War and Charles’s defeat and execution for treason.
Charles V (1500–1558) was the Holy Roman emperor during the time of Martin Luther’s reformation efforts. His immense empire included large areas of Europe. A staunch Catholic, he rejected Luther’s doctrines. The Protestant upheaval, along with political pressures, led Charles to voluntarily give up his throne. He divided the empire between his son and his brother. Charles entered a Catholic monastery where he remained until his death.
in the Middle Ages, a written document that set out the rights and privileges of a town
Geoffrey Chaucer (1343–1400) was the first important poet of his time to write in English. At various times during his life he worked as a copywriter, member of Parliament, and justice of the peace. His keen observations of many different types of people was reflected in his famous work, Canterbury Tales.
a culture that thrived in the Andean region from about 900 to 200 B.C.
a republic within Russia, where rebels have fought for independence
each branch of government can limit actions of other branches to protect against abuse of power
early Soviet secret police force
in the Aztec empire, an artificial island used to cultivate crops and made of mud piled atop reed mats that were anchored to the lake bed with willow trees
code of conduct for knights during the Middle Ages
Korean dynasty that ruled from 1392 to 1910, the longest-lived of Korea’s three dynasties
the sacred writings of the Christian religion
Winston Churchill (1874–1965) was born to British aristocracy and became prime minister of the British empire in 1940. Early on, he proclaimed the threats posed by Nazi Germany. His determination persuaded the country to defend itself against an encroaching enemy.
to travel completely around the world
a political unit that includes a city and its surrounding lands and villages
sharing ideas in a constructive way in order to reach an understanding
the refusal to obey unjust laws
branch of law that deals with private rights and matters
government officials
a war fought between groups of people in the same nation
an advanced stage of human society marked by a well-organized government and high levels of culture, science, and industry.
group of families with a common ancestor
the body of people who conduct Christian services
Clovis (466–511) is known as the political and religious founder of the kingdom of the Franks. He ruled much of Gaul from the late fifth century until 511. His kingdom, which expanded south and west from what is present-day Belgium and northeastern France, was the most powerful in Gaul. He was also the most important ally of the Byzantine emperor Anastasius I. Born a pagan, Clovis corresponded with the powerful bishops of Gaul and, in 496 or perhaps later, became famous as one of the first Germanic kings to convert to Christianity.
temporary alliance of various political parties
to arrange or set down in writing
Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619–1683) served under King Louis XIV of France as controller general of finance (from 1665) and secretary of state for the navy (from 1668). He carried out economic programs that helped make France the strongest power in Europe.
state of tension and hostility between nations aligned with the United States on one side and the Soviet Union on the other that rarely led to direct armed conflict
large farm owned and operated by peasants as a group
system in which a group of nations acts as one to preserve the peace of all
the forced joining together of workers and property into collectives, such as rural collectives that absorb peasants and their land
territory settled and ruled by people from another land
giant
the global exchange of goods, ideas, plants and animals, and disease that began with Columbus’s journey to the Americas
Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) was an Italian explorer and navigator who went on Mediterranean and Africa expeditions, thought up a plan to sail west to reach India and China, and found support from the Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella. In 1492, he sailed west from Spain and reached the Caribbean Islands, which he mistakenly thought were the Indies of Asia. He made other voyages, but strained relations with the Spanish royal officials led to his arrest and dismissal as governor of the settlements on the island of Hispaniola.
in ancient Greece, play that mocked people or social customs
Communist International, international association of communist parties led by the Soviet Union for the purpose of encouraging worldwide communist revolution
A period of European economic expansion, colonialism, and mercantilism which lasted from about the 1500s until the early 1700s. It included the growth of capitalism, banking, and investing.
Communist party official assigned to the army to teach party principles and ensure party loyalty during the Russian Revolution
valuable product
a legal system based on custom and court rulings
a political and economic system in which government owns all property and makes all economic decisions
an agreement among people
an agreement in which each side makes concessions; an acceptable middle ground
detention center for civilians considered enemies of the state
loose peacekeeping organization whose goal was to preserve the agreements set up by the Congress of Vienna
special economic right given to foreign companies or individuals
unification
(551 B.C.–479 B.C.) is China’s most famous philosopher. His teachings about the importance of education and public service influenced many eastern Asian civilizations. His ancestors, members of the aristocracy, were poor by the time of Confucius’s birth. By the age of 15, Confucius was dedicated to the life of a scholar. Although his ideas about the proper way to live guided millions of people, Confucius’s own life was simple and reflected a deep humility.
assembly of European leaders that met after the Napoleonic era to piece Europe back together; met from September 1814 to June 1815
“conqueror” in Spanish; a leader in the Spanish conquests of America, Mexico, and Peru in the sixteenth century
“the draft,” which required all young men to be ready for military or other service
widespread agreement among all members of a group
Constantine (c. A.D. 280– A.D. 337) was the first Roman Emperor to become a Christian. During his reign, he prevented the persecution of Christians and helped to strengthen the early church.
the capital of the eastern Roman empire; capital of the Byzantine and Ottoman empires, now called Istanbul
government whose power is defined and limited by law
an official from the patrician class who supervised the government and commanded the armies
the U.S. strategy of limiting communism to the areas already under Soviet control
blockade designed by Napoleon to hurt Britain economically by closing European ports to British goods; ultimately unsuccessful
guerrilla who fought the Sandinistas in Nicaragua
during wartime, military supplies and raw materials needed to make military supplies that may legally be confiscated by any belligerent
group of merchant ships protected by warships
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) was a Polish astronomer who concluded that the sun is the center of the universe around which Earth and the other planets revolve. This contradicted the religious and scientific belief that Earth was the center of the universe. Although he did not suffer immediate challenges from the Church, his most important work did not appear in print until after his death.
a business owned by many investors who buy shares of stock and risk only the amount of their investment
Hernán Cortés (c. 1485–1547) was a Spanish landowner in Cuba and conquistador who in 1518 led an expedition to Mexico. Allied with some Native American groups, he conquered the Aztec empire, including its capital Tenochititlán in 1521. The Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in 1522 appointed him governor of New Spain, but Cortés was eventually removed from power and retired to Spain in 1540.
a group of Catholic leaders that met between 1545 and 1563 to respond to Protestant challenges and direct the future of the Catholic Church
the forcible overthrow of a government
Gustave Courbet (1819–1877) was a leading French painter in the Realist movement. While he more painted traditional subjects, such as seascapes, portraits, and landscapes, he also focused on representing daily life by painting the rural middle class and bohemian culture, as well as social issues by depicting the harsh lives of the poor.
a binding agreement; specifically, in the Jewish tradition, the binding agreement God made with Abraham
Thomas Cranmer (1489–1556) was a Catholic theologian who strongly supported reform. When Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church, Cranmer became England’s first Protestant archbishop of Canterbury. He distributed English language Bibles to parish churches and, later, developed the Book of Common Prayer. Cranmer also acted as an adviser to both Henry VIII and his son, Edward VI.
a place used to burn corpses
in Spanish colonial America, an American-born descendant of Spanish settlers
war fought mainly on the Crimean Peninsula between the Russians and the British, French, and Turks from 1853–1856
branch of law that deals with offenses against others
Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658) was an English soldier and gentleman who led the forces against Charles I of England during the English Civil War. He made himself Lord Protector of England in 1653, leading the country as a republic until his death.
a series of wars from the 1000s through 1200s in which European Christians tried to win control of the Holy Land from Muslims
idealization of women and the home
the spread of ideas, customs, and technologies from one people to another
pride in the culture of one’s country
a Chinese Communist program in the late 1960s to purge China of nonrevolutionary tendencies that caused economic and social damage
the beliefs, customs, practices, and behaviors of a particular nation or group of people
in the ancient Middle East, a system of writing that used wedge-shaped marks
Marie Curie (1867–1934) was born in Warsaw to Polish schoolteachers. She later moved to Paris, where she gained a formal education and met her husband Pierre Curie. The Curies conducted groundbreaking work on radioactivity, revolutionizing the fields of physics and chemistry. The first woman to win a Nobel Prize, Marie Curie also worked tirelessly to promote practical and medicinal applications of her work. She died in 1934, most likely from her many years of exposure to radioactive materials.
capital city of the Inca empire
ways to protect computers, networks, and data against unauthorized use
a series of government-sponsored attacks on networked computer systems that could disrupt critical infrastructure in a target country
relating to the Slavic alphabet derived from the Greek and traditionally attributed to St. Cyril; in modified form still used in modern Slavic languages
code name for June 6, 1944, the day that Allied forces invaded France during WWII
artistic movement in which artists rejected tradition and produced works that often shocked their viewers
Louis Daguerre (1787–1851) was a French painter and physicist who invented photography. Before Daguerre invented the camera, he was a printmaker and painter. For years he had been experimenting with ways to capture detailed, photographic images. Finally, in 1839, he showed his process to the Académie des Sciences and the Académie des Beaux-Arts. He astounded everyone, and his invention revolutionized both the arts and the sciences.
outcast or member of India’s lowest caste
John Dalton (1766–1844) was an English teacher, lecturer, meteorologist, physicist, and chemist. His interest in the atmosphere led to his development of the Atomic Theory in 1803. His theory stated that atoms have mass, that elements are made up of atoms, and that chemical reactions could be explained by the combination and separation of atoms. Although parts of his theory have now been proved wrong, it remains the foundation of modern chemistry and physical science.
vital strait connecting the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea in present-day Turkey
a region in western Sudan where ethnic conflict threatened to lead to genocide
Charles Darwin (1809–1882) was an English naturalist who developed the theory of evolution through the process of natural selection. In 1831, he set sail on a five-year voyage around the world. While in the Galápagos Islands, Darwin observed that the four species of finches on the islands had different beaks and eating habits. He theorized that isolation, time, and adapting to local conditions, leads to new species. His observation and the samples he collected helped him develop his theory of evolution.
As described in the Books of Samuel, 1 Kings, and 1 Chronicles, David was from the tribe of Judah and began his life as a shepherd in Bethlehem. Eventually, David became king of a united Israel. Jews and Christians also believe he edited the Book of Psalms.
Ferenc Deák (1803–1876), also known as the Sage of the Country, was a Hungarian politician, reformer, and thinker. He is most famous for developing the concept of the Dual Monarchy and guiding that compromise to its final adoption.
system of numbers based on 10
to figure out the meaning of
the condition of not being able to pay a debt
gap between what a government spends and what it takes in through taxes and other sources
situation in which the government spends more money than it takes in
loss of forest cover in a region that results from trees being destroyed faster than they can grow back
the third-largest city in India, capital of medieval India
a thin band of territory across the Korean peninsula separating North Korean forces from South Korean forces; established by the armistice of 1953
Deng Xiaoping (1904–1997) was born in Sichuan province in China. As a young man, he studied in France and the Soviet Union. He became involved in the communist movement while in France. After the Communists took over China, he served in several high positions in the government, eventually becoming the most powerful policy maker in the nation. His policies are responsible for much of China’s economic growth after the failures of the Cultural Revolution.
reduction in the number of people in an area
René Descartes (1596–1650) was a French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist. Descartes was one of the first to abandon traditional methods of thought based on Aristotle’s teachings. Instead, he promoted a new science based on observation and experiments. For this, he has been called the father of modern philosophy.
process by which fertile or semi-desert land becomes desert
the relaxation of Cold War tensions during the 1970s
nations working toward development in Africa, Asia, and Latin America
in Hindu belief, the religious and moral duties of an individual
the spreading of the Jews beyond their historic homeland
Porfirio Díaz (1830–1915) served as president of Mexico twice: 1877–1880 and 1884–1911. Díaz consolidated power in the central government and put wealth in the hands of a few by bringing in foreign investors to build infrastructure and dig mines. Because the wealth was not evenly distributed, discontent spread. By 1910, the economy was in a sharp decline, and workers and peasants were living in poverty or debt. In 1911, Díaz resigned and went into exile.
Charles Dickens (1812–1870) was an English author who began his writing career as a freelance reporter. In 1836, he began publishing installments of his first novel, The Pickwick Papers, which launched his career as a novelist. Dickens created some of literature’s most famous and vivid characters. As a realist, Dickens was dedicated to depicting real life. He hoped to bring about reform, so his novels often focused on the problems of the poor to expose social ills.
ruler who has complete control over a government
small town and former French army base in northern Vietnam; site of the battle that ended in a Vietnamese victory, the French withdrawal from Vietnam, and the securing of North Vietnam’s independence
assembly or legislature
(A.D. 245–A.D. 311 ) was a Roman general who became emperor. To make the government more effective, he divided the large empire into East and West and appointed a co-emperor.
system of government in which citizens participate directly in the day-to-day affairs of government rather than through elected representatives
reduction of armed forces and weapons
unequal treatment or barriers
Benjamin Disraeli (1804–1881) was a leading Conservative politician and spent seven years as prime minister. Along with other political leaders, Disraeli worked to expand suffrage and slowly transformed the British Parliament during the 1800s into a more democratic institution. His spearheading of the Second Reform Act of 1867, allowed more men to vote, including members of the working class. Disraeli also focused on other social reforms, including public health laws and recognition of workers’ unions.
ideas that oppose those of the government
Protestant whose views and opinions differed from those of the Church of England
idea that a ruler’s authority came directly from God
to tame animals and adapt crops so they are best suited to use by humans
self-governing nation
the belief that a communist victory in South Vietnam would cause noncommunist governments across Southeast Asia to fall to communism, like a row of dominoes
in some societies, payment a bride’s family makes to the bridegroom and his family; payment a woman brings to a marriage
a political scandal that caused deep divisions in France; it centered on the 1894 wrongful conviction for treason of Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish officer in the French army.
the monarchy of Austria-Hungary
the requirement that the government act fairly and in accordance with established rules in all that it does
elected national legislature in Russia
port in France from which 300,000 Allied troops were evacuated when their retreat by land was cut off by the German advance in 1940
Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528) was born in Nuremberg, Germany. A painter, draftsman, and writer, his greatest artistic impact was in engraving. He traveled to Italy, studied the Italian masters, and helped spread Renaissance ideas to northern Europe. Many of his famous works, such as The Apocalypse, and Adam and Eve, had religious themes.
a trading company established with full sovereign powers by the Netherlands in 1602 to protect and expand its trade in Asia
a machine used to generate electricity
rise and fall of Chinese dynasties according to the Mandate of Heaven
ruling family
an embankment or other construction made of earth
a former Portuguese colony, seized by Indonesia, that gained independence in 2002
an emphasis on domestic control and protection of the economy
law issued by French king Henry IV in 1598 giving more religious freedom to French Protestants
Thomas Edison (1847–1931) applied for his first patent while working as a telegraph operator for Western Union. Although this first invention was a flop, Edison did not give up and went on to become one of the world’s most prolific inventors. Throughout his life he patented 1,093 inventions and improvements in several industries, including telecommunications, electric power, mining, sound recording, automotive, military defense, and motion pictures.
as taught by the Buddha, the path one must follow to achieve nirvana
Albert Einstein (1879–1955) was born into a middle-class Jewish family in Germany. He published his theories of relativity in 1905 and 1916, winning the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921. These ideas challenged long-held beliefs regarding the nature of the universe. As German Nazis came to power, Einstein emigrated with his family to the United States in 1932 and became a citizen in 1940. During World War II, his work was used in the creation of the atomic bomb. As nuclear technology spread, Einstein advocated for international controls and limitations. He is widely considered the most influential physicist of the 20th century.
Dwight Eisenhower (1890–1969) grew up poor and came from a hard-working family. During World War II, he was the American general who commanded the Allied forces in western Europe. “Ike” later served as the 34th president of the United States, from 1953–1961.
Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122–1204), was an heiress to the dukedom of Aquitaine. At age 15, she married the French royal heir, Louis VI, and became queen of France. Intelligent and energetic, she strongly influenced her husband and went with him on the Second Crusade. Her second marriage was to Henry Plantagenet, who became Henry II of England in 1154. While caring for five sons and three daughters, she actively helped administer England, managed her own domains—making the court at Poitiers a model of courtly life—and remained politically active into her 80s.
one of seven German princes who would choose the Holy Roman emperor
body of people allowed to vote
group of electors from each state, with each elector receiving one vote in presidential elections; votes are usually based on the popular vote
votes from all citizens
upper class
Elizabeth Tudor (1533–1603) became Queen Elizabeth I of England upon the death of Queen Mary. Shifting politics made her early years quite hazardous. Elizabeth used her experiences to become a shrewd and powerful monarch. Under her reign, England became an important European power. England prospered both economically, and culturally. Her balanced handling of the English religious conflicts earned her the nickname Good Queen Bess.
granting of freedom to serfs or enslaved people
movement away from one’s homeland
a person who flee his or her country for political reasons
the process of taking over and consolidating land formerly shared by peasant farmers
the right, granted by Spanish monarchs to conquistadors, to demand labor or tribute from Native Americans in a particular area
species threatened with extinction
application of science and mathematics to develop useful structures and machines
series of acts passed in 1689 by the English Parliament that limited the rights of the monarchy and ensured the superiority of Parliament
art form in which an artist etches a design on a metal plate with acid and then uses the plate to make multiple prints
absolute ruler who used his or her power to bring about political and social change
nonbinding agreement to follow common policies
business organization in such areas as shipping, mining, railroads, or factories
person who organizes and manages his or her own business
Mesopotamian narrative poem that was first recited in Sumer
outbreak of a rapidly spreading disease
(1745–1797) Olaudah Equiano was captured in West Africa when he was a boy of 11, sold into slavery, and transported to the Americas. Later, he found paying work and earned enough money to buy his freedom. In 1789, he wrote his autobiography, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano. He died in London in 1797.
Erasmus (c. 1466–1536) was a Dutch priest, writer, and scholar who promoted humanism. He wrote texts on various subjects and produced a new Greek edition of the Christian Bible. He also called for a translation of the Bible into the vernacular, or everyday language, to help spread learning, ideas, and education. He also wanted to reform Church corruption.
social classes
legislative body made up of the representatives of the three estates in pre-revolutionary France
moral standards of behavior
ancient Greek term for Axumite kingdom; present-day country in East Africa
the killing or forcible removal of people of different ethnicities from an area by aggressors so that only the ethnic group of the aggressors remains
large group of people who share the same language and cultural heritage
a people who inhabited early Italy
common currency used by most member nations of the European Union
an international organization made up of over two dozen European nations and dedicated to establishing free trade among its members, with a common currency and common policies and laws
exclusion from the Roman Catholic Church as a penalty for refusing to obey Church law
policy of increasing the amount of territory a government holds
right of foreigners to be protected by the laws of their own nation
a group or clique within a larger group that has different ideas and opinions than the rest of the group
a severe shortage of food in which large numbers of people starve
Michael Faraday (1791–1867) was a British chemist and physicist who made significant contributions to the field of electricity. Some of his most important discoveries include electricity generation and transmission, the electric motor, and the chemical benzene. His discoveries have shaped the modern world.
any centralized, authoritarian government system that is not communist, whose policies glorify the state over the individual and are destructive to basic human rights
government in which power is divided between the national, or federal, government and the states
central banking system of the United States, which regulates banks
Ferdinand III (1452–1516) and Isabella I (1451–1504) were the king of Aragon and the queen of Castile. Their marriage joined the two countries to become the country of Spain. Their military efforts were responsible for the final success of the Reconquista.
Miriam Ferguson (1875–1961), known to many as “Ma” Ferguson, was elected the first female governor of Texas in 1924. She ran when her husband, the politically disgraced Governor James E. Ferguson, was unable to secure a place on the ballot. Mrs. Ferguson was the first woman elected for the office in the United States but second to serve as governor because Wyoming’s Nellie T. Ross was inaugurated upon the death of her husband. Mrs. Ferguson was reelected in 1932 for a second term.
region of the Middle East in which civilizations first arose
exchange of pledges between lords and vassals
loosely organized system of government in which local lords governed their own lands but owed military service and other support to a greater lord
in medieval Europe, an estate granted by a lord to a vassal in exchange for service and loyalty
respect for parents
the management of money matters including the circulation of money, loans, investment, and banking
Firdawsi (c. 940–1020) was a Muslim poet most famous for the Shah Namah, or Book of Kings, which he wrote in Persian using Arabic script. Firdawsi wrote at a time when Persia, or Iran, was fairly free from the control of the Muslim empire and local leaders encouraged a flowering of Persian culture. The famed poet centered his writing on the stories of royalty and heroes, and many of the themes he introduced are still relevant today.
conflict between China and Japan in 1894–1895 over control of Korea
a region that included parts of present-day northern France, Belgium, and the Netherlands; was an important industrial and financial center of northern Europe during the Middle Ages and Renaissance
in the United States and Europe in the 1920s, a rebellious young woman
a city in the Tuscany region of northern Italy that was the center of the Italian Renaissance
stone supports on the outside of a building that allowed builders to construct higher, thinner walls that contained large stained-glass windows.
as taught by the Buddha, the four basic beliefs that form the foundation of Buddhism
list of terms for resolving WWI and future wars outlined by American President Woodrow Wilson in January 1918
Francis Joseph (1830–1916) became emperor of Austria in 1848 after the abdication of Ferdinand I. After the creation of the Dual Monarchy in 1867, he also became king of Hungary. In 1879, Francis Joseph formed an alliance with Germany, which was led by the Prussians. His handling of relations with Serbia after the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand, in 1914 was one of the catalysts for World War I.
Francisco Franco (1892–1975) was a Spanish military leader who came to power during the Spanish Civil War. He was dictator of Spain from 1939 to 1973, when he left his position as premier. He continued to be head of state until his death in 1975.
Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) was a man of many talents. Born in 1706, Franklin was an author, inventor, and a statesman who helped persuade France to enter the Revolutionary War on the side of the Americans. He was actively involved in framing the Declaration of Independence.
a Germanic tribe that conquered present-day France and neighboring lands in the 400s
Frederick II (1712–1786) succeeded his father, Frederick William I, to serve as king of Prussia (1740–1786).
Frederick William I (1688–1740) was the second Prussian king who helped transform his country into a prosperous state.
An economic system, also known as capitalism, in which private businesses are able to compete with each other with little control by government. Products, prices, and services are driven by free market laws of supply and demand rather than government regulations.
market regulated by the natural laws of supply and demand
war between Britain and France in the Americas that happened from 1754 to 1763; it was part of a global war called the Seven Years’ War
Western name for the colonial holdings of France on mainland Southeast Asia; present-day Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia
colorful painting completed on wet plaster
a medieval European monk who traveled from place to place preaching to the poor
religious leader who calls for a return to what he or she sees as the fundamental, or basic, values of his or her faith
Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) was an Italian astronomer and mathematician whose discoveries using a telescope supported the heliocentric universe theories of Copernicus. His discoveries challenged established scientific and religious thinking. Galileo was an important contributor to the development of the scientific method used by modern scientists.
Vasco da Gama (c. 1460–1524) was a Portuguese explorer and navigator who in 1498 was the first person to directly reach India by sailing around Africa. He returned to India in 1502, fought Arab Muslim ships along the way, and established trading posts along the East African coast. After serving as an advisor to Portugal’s king for 20 years, he returned to India in 1524 with the title of viceroy, but fell ill and died soon after arriving.
Indira Gandhi (1917–1984) was a four-term prime minister of India. The daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru, Gandhi entered politics as part of the Congress Party, soon becoming its leader. After her father’s death, she was elected India’s prime minister. Gandhi stayed in power until 1977, when some of her authoritarian policies led to her popular defeat. In 1980, however, she was reelected to a fourth term as prime minister. After she ordered a military attack on a Sikh holy site, the Golden Temple, Gandhi was assassinated by her Sikh bodyguards.
Mohandas Gandhi (1869–1948) was a mediocre student who went through a period of rebellion during his early teens. He married at age 13 and later was sent to England to attend law school. In 1891, Gandhi accepted a position in South Africa. Although he planned to be there only one year, he stayed until 1914, fighting for Indian rights. In 1919, Gandhi became active in the Indian independence movement and remained dedicated to the cause until his death. He was assassinated in 1948—just a few months after India won its independence.
Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807–1882) was a nationalist soldier and military leader who effectively used guerilla tactics to win military victories throughout southern Italy. In his earlier years he was a member of Mazzini’s Young Italy, where he began his involvement in the cause of Italian unity.
Marcus Garvey (1887–1940) founded the Universal Negro Improvement and Conservation Association and African Communities League (UNIA) in Jamaica in 1914, with the goal of building a Black-governed nation. Finding little support, Garvey moved to the United States and established the UNIA in Harlem. Garvey taught his followers about the African culture and preached the need for Blacks to form a strong, independent economy. His adamant belief in separation of the races brought many enemies, and he was deported in 1927.
Siddhartha Gautama (circa 563 B.C.– 483 B.C.) was born a prince in India. Encounters with human suffering led him to leave his royal life to seek out the cause of suffering and sorrow. He sought answers from scholars and meditated until he developed a spiritual explanation for life. He became known as the “Buddha,” and began teaching his beliefs to others. He taught the Four Noble Truths and encouraged the faithful to follow the Eightfold Path.
strike by workers in many different industries at the same time
manipulation of living organism’s chemical code in order to produce specific results
a branch of biology dealing with heredity and variations among plants and animals
Swiss city-state that became a Calvinist theocracy in the 1500s; today a major city in Switzerland
Genghis Khan (1162–1227) rose from poverty to unite the warring Mongol tribes. He imposed discipline, exacted loyalty, and then proceeded to build an army that conquered the vast areas of Central Asia and China and became the Mongol empire. He was known for both his fierceness and his generosity. The Mongol empire lasted long after his death during a military campaign. His descendants added to the empire until it became the largest empire in the world prior to the British empire.
deliberate and systematic killing of people who belong to a particular racial, ethnic, or cultural group.
wealthy, landowning class
George III (1738–1820) was the longest reigning monarch in British history, ruling at a time when Britain and France struggled to dominate Europe; he shared the blame for the loss of Britain’s American colonies.
the theory that infectious diseases are caused by certain microbes
secret police in Nazi Germany
early West African trading kingdom located in parts of present-day Mauritania and Mali
separate section of a city where members of a minority group are forced to live
William Gladstone (1809–1898) Gladstone served as prime minister four separate times and was a leader of the Whigs, and later, the Liberal Party. He extended suffrage to farmworkers and most other men during the 1880s, most notably with the Representation of the People Act in 1884. Gladstone also strongly supported Irish home rule. Along with his chief rival, Benjamin Disraeli, Gladstone helped transform the British government into a parliamentary democracy.
“openness” in Russian; a Soviet policy of greater freedom of expression introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev in the late 1980s
the increase in Earth’s average surface temperature over time
the process by which national economies, politics, cultures, and societies become closely linked with those of other nations around the world
a coastal city seized in 1510 that became the commercial and military base of Portugal’s India trade
period of great cultural achievement
charter that strictly limited royal power in Hungary
the most prominent Sikh house of worship
an agreement to end the conflict in Northern Ireland signed in 1998 by Protestants and Catholics
policy in which American President Franklin Roosevelt promised that the United States would interfere less in Latin American affairs
Mikhail Gorbachev (b. 1931) was the leader of the Soviet Union from 1985 to 1991. He was responsible for introducing the reforms (glasnost and perestroika) that brought about the break up of the Soviet Union and the end of Soviet domination of Eastern Europe. He was driven from office by his popular rival, democratic advocate Boris Yeltsin, in 1991.
type of European architecture that developed in the Middle Ages, characterized by flying buttresses, ribbed vaulting, thin walls, and high roofs
Olympe de Gouges (1745?–1793), author of the Declaration of the Rights of Women, railed against the treatment of women in France, addressing her concerns directly to Marie Antoinette.
(c. 154 B.C.–121 B.C.) was the brother of Tiberius and a plebeian political reformist who sought to limit senatorial power. He advanced checks and balances to minimize financial influence. Like his brother, he was murdered by thugs hired by the Roman Senate.
force that pulls objects in Earth’s sphere to the center of Earth
a painful time of global economic collapse, starting in 1929 and lasting until about 1939
a Chinese Communist program from 1958 to 1960 to boost farm and industrial output that failed miserably
the official split between the Roman Catholic and Byzantine churches that occurred in 1054; another event was the Great Western Schism, a period when rival popes fought for exclusive power and divided the Roman Catholic Church from 1378–1417
powerful East African medieval trading center and city-state located in south-eastern present-day Zimbabwe
El Greco (1541–1614) was a master of Spanish painting who also worked as a sculptor and architect during Spain’s Golden Age.
the improved seeds, pesticides, mechanical equipment, and farming methods introduced in the developing world beginning in the 1950s
Gregory VII (c. 1025–1085) achieved success in his battle with the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV on the matter of lay investiture. He greatly expanded papal power by claiming his supremacy over secular rulers.
professional storyteller in early West Africa
Guang Xu (1871–1908) was the ninth emperor of the Qing dynasty. When previous emperor Tongzhi died, his mother Ci Xi named Guang, her nephew, as new emperor. Ci Xi dominated his reign, influencing the government and making him ineffectual. During the Hundred Days of Reform, Guang attempted progressive reforms, angering conservatives. Ci Xi had Guang imprisoned. He died under suspicious circumstances.
coastal city in southeastern China, also known as Canton, where, during the Ming dynasty, the Dutch, English, and other Europeans could trade with Chinese merchants under the supervision of imperial officials, only during each year’s trading season and only at Canton
a soldier in a loosely organized force making surprise raids
fighting carried on through hit-and-run raids
in the Middle Ages, an association of merchants or artisans who cooperated to uphold standards of their trade and to protect their economic interests
device used during the Reign of Terror to execute thousands by beheading
in the Soviet Union, a system of forced labor camps in which millions of criminals and political prisoners were held under Stalin
Nationalist party; active in China 1912 to 1949
Gutenberg (c. 1400–1468) was born in Germany. He became a goldsmith, printer, and publisher. His pioneering invention of a printing press with moveable type changed the world. Around 1455, Gutenberg printed the first complete edition of the Christian Bible using his press.
principle that a person cannot be held in prison without first being charged with a specific crime
a large plantation
(A.D. 76–A.D. 138) was a Roman Emperor from A.D. 117 to A.D. 138. Considered one of the “Five Good Emperors,” he codified Roman law and traveled extensively, uniting the empire.
one of the Five Pillars of Islam, the pilgrimage that all Muslims are expected to make at least once in their lifetime
(1792 B.C.–1750 B.C.) Hammurabi became the first king of the Babylonian empire. He inherited the power from his father, who extended Babylon’s control across Mesopotamia. Hammurabi is known for writing the first code of law in recorded history.
alphabet that uses symbols to represent the sounds of spoken Korean
Central European empire that lasted from the 1400s to the 1900s and at its height included the lands of the Holy Roman Empire and the Netherlands
large ancient city of the Indus civilization, located in present-day Pakistan
an African American cultural movement in the 1920s and 1930s, centered in Harlem
(Died 1458 B.C.) Queen Hatshepsut served for 20 years alongside her husband, Thutmose II, but after his death took the role of pharaoh and served as regent to Thutmose III. She is known for building temples and monuments and generally making Egypt flourish.
Václav Havel (1936–2011) was a Czech playwright and human rights activist who became president of Czechoslovakia in 1989, after the Velvet Revolution. Because of his persecution during the later stages of communist rule in Czechoslovakia, Havel became a worldwide symbol of communist repression. After the division of Czechoslovakia, he served as the first president of the Czech Republic.
headscarves and loose-fitting, ankle-length garments meant to conceal the body; traditionally worn by many Muslim women
based on the belief that the sun is the center of the universe
Henry IV (1050–1106) was a German king who became Holy Roman Emperor in 1084. His efforts to increase the power of the monarchy led him into conflict with Pope Gregory VIII over lay investiture. Gregory excommunicated Henry but later reinstated him in the church after Henry did penance.
Henry VIII (1491–1547) was the second Tudor king of England. Well-educated and athletic, he was initially a favorite of the English people. He lost much of that popularity with his constant involvement in wars. Henry’s desire for a male heir was the catalyst for his eventual break with the Roman Catholic Church and the formation of the Church of England.
Prince Henry (1394–1460) was a Portuguese prince and patron of explorers who helped his father capture the Moroccan city of Ceuta, became its governor, and sponsored voyages to the Madeira Islands and the West African coast. He raised money for expeditions and established a base for explorers in Sagres, later adding an arsenal, an observatory, and a school for studying geography. His support of cartography, advances in navigation, and exploration provided a foundation for Portugal’s rise to international dominance and acquisition of its colonial empire in the sixteenth century.
religious belief that is contrary to the official teachings of a church
Herodotus (c. 484 B.C.–c. 425 B.C.), often called the “Father of History,” traveled widely throughout the ancient Mediterranean world, collecting information for his chronicles of past events, including the Persian wars. In his writings, he noted bias and conflicting accounts in his sources.
Father Miguel Hidalgo (1753–1811) was a Catholic priest in Mexico. He led Indians and mestizos in a revolution against the Spanish until he was captured and killed in 1811.
system of ranking groups
system of writing in which pictures called hieroglyphs represent objects, concepts, or sounds
Muhammad’s journey from Mecca to Medina in 622
Hippocrates (c. 460 B.C.–c. 375 B.C.), a Greek physician traditionally regarded as the father of medicine, who studied the causes of illnesses, seeking their cures. Many ancient medical writings are attributed to him, although he probably wrote few of them. He is honored for his Hippocratic oath that sets ethical standards for medical practice.
Hirohito (1901–1989) became emperor in 1926 when his father died. Many believed he was a living god, descended from the sun goddess. Japanese military ultranationalists built a cult around the emperor, reviving ancient warrior values and suppressing most democratic freedoms. Although Hirohito was invested with supreme authority theoretically, he did little more than approve the policies presented by his ministers. He was more interested in marine biology, authoring several books on the subject. Hirohito was the longest reigning monarch in Japanese history, serving as emperor for an astonishing 63 years until his death in 1989.
city in Japan where the first atomic bomb was dropped in August 1945
person who studies events in the past
Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) was chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945 and dictator of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945. After Hitler was appointed chancellor, he immediately transformed the Weimar Republic into the Third Reich. He wanted to establish a “New Order” and create more “living space” for what he believed was the superior Aryan race. Hitler aggressively invaded neighboring nations. which led to World War II. As Germany faced defeat in 1945, Hitler committed suicide to avoid capture by the Soviets.
Ho Chi Minh (1890–1969) was born Nguyen That Thanh. He founded the Indochinese Communist Party and was the leader of the armed independence movement in Vietnam. Ho proclaimed Vietnam’s independence in 1945 and became the leader of North Vietnam when the country was divided in 1954. He was the leader of North Vietnam until his death in 1969, and refused to negotiate an end to the war.
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) was an influential English political philosopher, best known for his work Leviathan. In it, Hobbes strongly advocated that only a powerful government was capable of protecting society. He believed that people entered into a social contract with their government to avoid the inevitable chaos and lawlessness of life in “the state of nature.” Hobbes’s political philosophy was foundational for later thinkers of the Enlightenment, including Locke, Rousseau, and Kant.
the systematic genocide of about six million European Jews by the Nazis in World War II
Jerusalem and other places where Christians believe Jesus had lived and preached
empire of west central Europe from 962 to 1806, comprising present-day Germany and neighboring lands
local self-government
(c. 750 B.C.), according to tradition the author of the epic poems, the Illiad and the Odyssey, is thought to have traveled from village to village singing about heroic deeds of warriors during the Trojan War
society that has common culture and language
a culture that thrived in the Andean region from about A.D. 600 to 1000
Victor Hugo (1802–1885) was a leading literary, intellectual, and political figure in France. His works were not only extremely popular—most notably Notre Dame de Paris and Les Misérables —but also highly influential and respected. Hugo believed in the cause of the common people and saw in them both strength and potential. He sought to portray both their virtues and their plights in his works. Although Hugo did not live in poverty, he associated with the lower class, and, according to his wishes, he had a pauper’s funeral and grave
French Protestants of the 1500s and 1600s
an intellectual movement at the heart of the Renaissance that focused on education and the classics
study of subjects such as grammar, rhetoric, poetry, and history that were taught in ancient Greece and Rome
a nomadic people of central Asia
an ethnic group that forms the majority in Rwanda and Burundi
an extremely rapid and sharp rise in prices that causes money to lose value
an unproved theory accepted for the purposes of explaining certain facts or to provide a basis for further investigation.
Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) was an Arab thinker who helped establish the principles of many branches of knowledge including history and economics. He is perhaps best known for the development of standards for studying and writing about history, which he explained in his landmark book, the Muqaddimah. He also introduced or refined many economic concepts relating to labor, profits, supply and demand, use of resources, production, and supply and demand.
Ibn Rushd (1128–1198), also known as Averroes, was a philosopher and scientist who lived in Córdoba and influenced European thought. As a philosopher, he placed a variety of subject matter under the scrutiny of reason and analysis and argued that humans were partially but not completely controlled by fate. In the field of science, Ibn Rushd contributed to the study of diseases.
Ibn Sina (980–1037), also known as Avicenna, was a Persian physician who wrote the Canon on Medicine, which focused on past medical practices throughout the known world as well as his own procedures. This work features descriptions of anatomy, symptoms of diseases, and medicines and cures. Ibn Sina wrote on a variety of other topics as well, including philosophy, mathematics, and astronomy.
holy image of Christ, the Virgin Mary, or a saint venerated in the Eastern Orthodox Church
system of thought and belief
Ignatius of Loyola (1491–1556) went from an early career as a Spanish nobleman soldier to become a theologian and an influential participant in the Catholic Reformation. While recovering from leg surgery, Ignatius read a book on the lives of the saints and decided that serving God was holy chivalry. From that time until his death, Ignatius studied, preached, and did missionary work as founder of the Society of Jesus, an order of religious men who came to be known as Jesuits.
the artistic decoration of books and manuscripts
resistance, such as the power to keep from being affected by a disease
domination by one country of the political, economic, or cultural life of another country or region
manufacturing goods locally to replace imports
school of painting of the late 1800s and early 1900s that tried to capture fleeting visual impressions
payment for losses in war
original or native inhabitants of a country or region
term generally used to describe a group descended from the earliest inhabitants of a region
in ancient India, the god of war
in the Roman Catholic Church, pardon for sins committed during a person’s lifetime
period beginning in the 1700s in which production shifted from simple hand tools to complex machinery and sources of energy shifted from human or animal power to steam and electricity
Pope Innocent III (c. 1160–1216) was only 37 years old when he became pope and quickly extended the authority of the papacy over Rome and in Italy. When King John of England appointed the archbishop of Canterbury without Innocent’s approval, the pope excommunicated John.
A Church court set up to try people accused of heresy
rebel
official appointed by French king Louis XIV to govern the provinces, collect taxes, and recruit soldiers
identical components that can be used in place of one another in manufacturing
mutual dependence of countries on goods, resources, labor, and knowledge from other parts of the world
in the Roman Catholic Church, excommunication of an entire region, town, or kingdom
an artificial structure built and maintained by a coalition of nations with the purpose of research
a huge international computer network linking millions of users around the world
confinement during wartime
the Inca sun god
Palestinian Arab uprising against the Israeli occupation
political alliance of five Iroquois groups, known as the Five Nations, in the late 1500s
capital of Safavid empire during the 1600s; located in present-day Iran
an Islamist terrorist organization
Isis is the Egyptian god worshiped as the ideal mother and wife. She is known as the protector of the dead and goddess of children. She is usually portrayed as a woman, wearing a throne-shaped headdress.
a person who wants government policies to be based on the teachings of Islam
during World War II, Allied strategy of recapturing some Japanese-held islands while bypassing others
capital of the Ottoman empire, formerly called Constantinople when it was the center of the eastern Roman empire and also capital of the Byzantine empire
Ivan the Great (1462–1505) was one of the most powerful Russian rulers. He consolidated his power by winning the voluntary allegiance of Russian princes and preventing further Mongol invasions.
Ivan the Terrible (1530–1584) was the grandson of Ivan the Great. He continued to centralize power in his own hands, developing a brutal secret group that terrorized members of the hereditary nobility, or boyars. His eventual insanity contributed to his name “the Terrible.”
a member of a radical political club during the French Revolution
Nur Jahan (1577–1645) was a Persian widow with a small child who became the powerful wife of the Mughal emperor Jahangir. Her administrative, political, economic, and cultural skills so impressed Jahangir that she had virtual control over the empire until his death in 1627. Since women were not allowed to interact face to face with men in court, Nur Jahan relied on trusted men to act for her.
Shah Jahan (1592–1666) was the third son of the Mughal emperor Jahangir. With support from court nobles, he won succession to become emperor upon Jahangir’s death. An effective and tolerant ruler, Shah Jahan was also an enthusiastic builder, involving himself in every detail of the building process. When his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal died, he built the famous mausoleum called the Taj Mahal in her honor.
James I (1566–1625) was a king of Scotland who also became king of England and Ireland. He deeply believed in the divine right of kings to rule over all their subjects without interference from anyone. His views were in sharp contrast to Parliament, leading to constant conflict. He was also the author of the King James version of the Bible.
a member of the elite forces of the Ottoman army
in India, an occupational group, part of the caste system
Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) is known mainly as the primary author of the Declaration of Independence. Jefferson also served as minister to France and later as the third president of the United States.
the world’s first village, established in the modern-day West Bank between 10,000 and 9000 B.C.
capital of the Jewish state of Judea in ancient times and capital of the modern state of Israel; city sacred to Jews, Muslims, and Christians
Jesus (c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 30) was the founder of Christianity. He is considered by most Christians to be the Son of God. Raised in a Jewish family, he began preaching a message of salvation and eternal life. He was put to death under Roman law. According to the Gospels, he rose from the dead. He is worshipped as a savior today by Christians around the world.
Jiang Jieshi (1887–1975), also known as Chiang Kai-shek, was born to a merchant family in eastern China. Along with Sun Yixian, he formed the Nationalist Party, or Guomindang, and following Sun’s death in 1925, Jiang took over control. After years of battling, Jiang joined forces with the Communists against the Japanese invaders. Jiang also led the Chinese military to assist the Allies in defeating Japan in World War II. Eventually, the Communists wrestled back control and Jiang fled to the island of Taiwan, which he ruled until his death in 1975.
Muhammad Ali Jinnah (1876–1948) was an Indian Muslim politician and leader of the Muslim League, which was founded in 1906 to protect Muslim interests in India. The League worked closely with the Indian Congress Party early on but later diverged from the Congress when Jinnah and other Muslims began to lobby for their own state. Jinnah helped found Pakistan in 1947 and was its first governor-general.
Born in 1942, anthropologist Donald Johanson found one of the most important early humans in history, a skeleton of a woman he called “Lucy.” After studying her bones, Johanson concluded that Lucy walked upright and was about 4 feet tall.
King John (c. 1166–1216) was a son of King Henry II. He seized control of the English throne when his brother, King Richard the Lionheart, was captured while on crusade. Conflicts with the English nobles led to John’s forced signature to Magna Carta in 1215, which limited the power of the English kings.
family organization in which several generations share a common dwelling
Joseph II (1741–1790) ruled as Holy Roman Emperor in Austria and is considered the most radical of the enlightened despots. He continued many of the modernizing governmental reforms introduced by his mother, Maria Theresa, with the goal of equal treatment for all his subjects. He abolished serfdom and encouraged freedom of the press. Most notably, Joseph supported religious equality for Protestants and even Jews. He is also remembered for traveling among his subjects in disguise to learn about the everyday problems of the peasantry.
a salaried worker employed by a guild master
Benito Juárez (1806–1872) was a Mexican lawyer and politician. Coming from a Zapotec Indian heritage and peasant family background, he supported reforms to help oppressed people in Mexico. He helped start the La Reforma movement and became president of Mexico in 1861. He died while in office, but his reforms helped unite Mexico and bring mestizos into politics.
group of people with authority to make a decision in a legal case
citizens serving on juries to help determine verdicts for court cases
Justinian (483–565) was born of peasant stock and adopted by his uncle Justin (emperor from 518). As the Byzantine emperor from 527 to 565, Justinian continued war with Persia and sought to win back former western Roman provinces from barbarian invaders. After riots and a major fire in 532, he rebuilt much of Constantinople in glorious style. He also instituted reforms to stop imperial corruption and promote justice for his subjects. His most influential achievement is Justinian’s Code, a collection, organization, and revision of Roman laws.
collection of Roman laws organized by the Byzantine emperor Justinian and later serving as a model for the Catholic Church and medieval monarchs
the most sacred temple of Islam, located at Mecca
emperor of Germany
Japanese pilot who undertook a suicide mission
in the Japanese writing system, phonetic symbols representing syllables
Karl Marx (1818–1883) was a German political thinker whose ideas became the foundation for communism. Marx trained as a lawyer and later studied philosophy, with plans to enter the academic world. His radical ideas, however, left him with few prospects, so he turned to writing. His most famous work was the Communist Manifesto, which criticized capitalism and predicted that alienated workers would rise up to overthrow the bourgeoisie. In the 1860s, Marx was an influential member of the International Working Men’s Association.
in Hindu belief, all the actions that determine a person’s fate in the next life
a former princely state in the Himalayas claimed by both India and Pakistan, which have fought wars over its control
a province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo with rich copper and diamond deposits that tried to gain independence from Congo in 1960
an international agreement, signed by almost every nation in 1928, to stop using war as a method of national policy
John F. Kennedy (1917–1963) was president of the United States from 1961 to 1963. A decorated naval commander in World War II, he was elected president at the age of 42. He was president during the communist revolution in Cuba and the Cuban Missile Crisis, and he increased U.S. involvement in Vietnam. On the domestic front, Kennedy’s administration began the federal effort to enforce civil rights in the South. He was assassinated on November 22, 1963, by Lee Harvey Oswald.
(1894–1978) was a nationalist and leader in the fight for Kenyan independence from Britain. In 1963, he became the country’s first prime minister, and in 1964, the country’s first president. He was president until his death.
Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) was a German astronomer whose discoveries expanded on Copernicus’s heliocentric universe. Kepler’s research showed that the planets move in a particular orbit around the sun. His achievements included a correct description of how vision occurs, as well as how a telescope uses light.
Reza Khan (1878–1944) joined the Iranian military at a young age. After leading the 1921 coup, Khan became the minister of war and then prime minister. Four years later, he was elected as shah and continued to radically reform both the government and nation. At the start of World War II, the Soviet Union and Britain occupied Iran. Khan abdicated, and his son became shah. The British exiled Khan to Mauritius and then Johannesburg, where he died.
Omar Khayyám (1048–1131) is best known today as a poet who crafted many rubáiyáts, or quatrains. In his day, he was praised for his expertise in many areas. As a mathematician, he contributed to the development of algebra. As a astronomer, he carefully studied the sky to help improve the Muslim calendar. The Persian scholar also examined issues related to law, philosophy, and history.
a political movement and a force of Cambodian communist guerrillas that gained power in Cambodia in 1975
Ruhollah Khomeini (1902–1989) was a Shiite Muslim cleric (Ayatollah) who led the 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran, which overthrew the Shah (Mohammed Reza). He was Iran’s highest religious and political leader until his death 10 years later.
Nikita Khrushchev (1894–1971) served in the Red Army during World War II as a lieutenant general and afterwards was a Communist Party official in Ukraine. He became part of the central party leadership in 1947 and rose to prominence after Stalin’s death in 1953. As leader of the Soviet Union from 1955 to 1964, he introduced domestic reforms that made life in the Soviet Union less harsh, but he crushed rebellions in Eastern Europe. He was the Soviet leader during the Cuban Missile Crisis.
a collective farm in Israel
capital of medieval Russia and of present-day Ukraine
Kim Il Sung (1912–1994) led the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North Korea) from 1949 until his death in 1994. Supported by the Soviet Union during the Cold War, Kim established a totalitarian state with massive military budgets and virtually no political freedoms. In 1993, he declared that North Korea would withdraw from the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty.
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. (1929–1968), was an American minister and civil rights leader. He gained national prominence with his leadership of the Montgomery, Alabama, bus boycott in 1955. King helped organize the massive March on Washington in 1963, where he gave his famous “I Have a Dream” speech. He was assassinated on April 14, 1968.
large underground chamber that the Anasazi used for religious ceremonies and political meetings
F.W. de Klerk (1936–) was a National Party member and the last president of South Africa under apartheid. With Nelson Mandela, he negotiated the transition of power from the white minority to majority rule, for which he and Mandela won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993.
a European noble who served as a mounted warrior
city in ancient Crete, the principle center of Minoan civilization that dominated the Aegean between about 1600 B.C. and 1400 B.C. Excavations beginning in 1900 discovered a palace and surrounding buildings of a sophisticated culture.
Robert Koch (1843–1910) was a German physician who was one of the founders of bacteriology, or the study of bacteria. Koch discovered the bacteria responsible for tuberculosis and cholera and determined the cycle of the anthrax disease. Koch also improved methods for studying bacteria, including cultivating pure cultures and staining bacteria to make them more visible and identifiable. In 1905 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine.
a large city in India, also known as Calcutta
Korean dynasty that ruled from 935 to 1392
Louis Kossuth (1802–1894) was a Hungarian lawyer, journalist, politician and ruler of Hungary during the revolution of 1848–89.
Kublai Khan (1215–1294) was the grandson of Genghis Khan and founded the Yuan dynasty, conquered the Song dynasty in the south to complete Mongol control of China, and proved a strong and intelligent ruler of the vast empire. Guided by Confucian Chinese advisors, he undertook reforms in his territories and politically reunited China, but also engaged in a series of costly and fruitless wars with neighboring kingdoms. He generally left Chinese life unchanged and, although religious, was known for his acceptance of various religious practices and for granting economic privileges to favored sects.
wealthy peasant in the Soviet Union in the late 1930s
Bismarck’s “battle for civilization,” intended to make Catholics put loyalty to the state above their allegiance to the Church
Toussaint L’Ouverture (1743–1803) was born in Haiti as the son of an educated enslaved person. He led an army of enslaved people, who he trained in guerrilla warfare, in a revolt against the French colonists. He was captured in 1802 by French forces and died in prison a year later.
an era of liberal reform in Mexico from 1855 to 1876
organization of workers who bargain for better pay and working conditions
Marquis de Lafayette (1757–1834), a French noble, fought alongside the Americans in the Revolutionary War. Upon his return to France, Lafayette led the call for reform and in 1789 presented a draft of the Declaration of the Rights of Man to the National Assembly. He was hated by some for his moderate stance, and fled to Austria, but later returned.
policy allowing business to operate with little or no government interference
Ruler of Ethiopia who came to power in the 1200s. He built eleven Christian churches carved from ground level into the solid rock of the mountains below.
break-up of large agricultural holdings for redistribution among peasants
Laozi means “Master Lao” or “Old Master” in the Chinese language. An old man when Confucius was a young scholar, Laozi was born in a small village in ancient China. He was appointed a historian in one of the Zhou dynasty courts. Laozi developed a philosophy of inner calm, purity of mind, and living in harmony with nature that is called Dao, or the way of the universe. His book, The Way of Life, had enormous influence on Chinese life.
Bartolomé de Las Casas (c. 1474–July 17, 1566) was a Dominican priest and historian famed as an early advocate for human rights in the Americas. Knowing the evils suffered by Native Americans under the encomienda system, his vivid reports of abuses helped the passage of laws prohibiting enslavement and abuse in 1542. He spent the rest of his life fighting for the rights of peoples in the Americas.
a high-energy light beam that can be used for many purposes, including surgery, engineering, and scientific research
huge estates bought up by newly wealthy Roman citizens
Thomas Edward Lawrence, (1888–1935), also known as Lawrence of Arabia, was a British archaeologist, writer, and expert on Arabia who helped lead an Arab rebellion and guerilla war against the Ottoman Turks during World War I. In 1926, he published a memoir of his activities in those years, The Seven Pillars of Wisdom.
appointment of bishops by anyone who is not a member of the clergy
(1903–1972) As an archaeologist, Louis Leakey, and his wife, Mary, searched for the remains of early humans in East Africa, finding many tools and bones that increased our understanding of early humans.
(1913–1996) Born in London, England, Mary Leakey traveled throughout Europe visiting numerous prehistoric sites, which increased her interest in archaeology and geology. She married Louis Leakey in 1936, and they spent 30 years digging for early humans in East Africa. Mary Leakey eventually found many remains that have increased our understanding of early hominids.
basic unit of the ancient Roman army, made up of about 5,000 soldiers
lawmaking body
principle by which monarchies that had been unseated by the French Revolution or Napoleon were restored
act passed by the U.S. Congress in 1941 that allowed the president (FDR) to sell or lend war supplies to any country whose defense was considered vital to the United States
V. I. Lenin (1870–1924) was a Russian communist revolutionary who led the Bolsheviks to victory in the Russian October Revolution. He served as the premier of the Soviet Union from 1922 until his death in 1924. He adapted the ideas of Karl Marx to create a type of communism known as Marxism-Leninism.
Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) was an Italian artist considered the ideal Renaissance man due to his varied talents. His interests included botany, anatomy, optics, music, architecture, and engineering. His sketches for flying machines and undersea boats resembled the later inventions of airplanes and submarines. Leonardo’s paintings, such as the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper, remain famous today.
Leopold II (1835–1909) was the king of Belgium who led the first Western efforts to develop and control the Congo basin. He ruled personally over the Congo Free State, which became part of Belgium in 1908.
morning ritual during which nobles would wait upon French king Louis XIV
knowing publication of false and damaging statements
movement within the Catholic Church that urged the church to become a force for reform, social justice, and put an end to poverty
Liliuokalani, born Lydia Kamakaeha (1838–1917), was the last Hawaiian sovereign before the islands were annexed by the United States in 1898. A princess during her brother’s reign, Liliuokalani played an active role in Hawaii’s government, improving education and meeting with foreign dignitaries. After her brother’s death, she inherited the throne, becoming the first queen of Hawaii. In 1893, American planters, led by Sanford Dole, overthrew her.
government in which a constitution or legislative body limits the monarch’s powers
line set by the Treaty of Tordesillas dividing the non-European world into two zones, one controlled by Spain and the other by Portugal
a group claiming a common ancestor
Joseph Lister (1827–1912) was a Scottish surgeon who furthered medical knowledge by recognizing that the lack of cleanliness in hospitals directly correlated to deaths after surgeries. By studying the works of other scientists, he became convinced that microorganisms in the air entered the body through open wounds and caused infections that often led to death after surgery. He began using carbolic acid to clean patient wounds. He also began using an antiseptic liquid to treat dressings and later developed techniques to clean surgical instruments and keep wounds clean during surgery. He is known as the “Father of Antiseptic Surgery.”
the ability to read and write
percentage of people who can read and write
industrial city in northern Britain that was part of the first major railway line; it went from Liverpool to Manchester
David Livingstone (1813–1873) was a Scottish missionary and explorer who influenced Western attitudes toward Africa.
John Locke (1632–1704) grew up during the tumultuous era of the English Civil Wars. A prolific writer on political philosophy, Locke’s works strongly influenced the U.S. Constitution and the development of American government. Locke proposed that people are born with certain natural rights that cannot be taken away, including life, liberty, and property. His radical ideas on government’s responsibility to the people were fundamental to the leaders of the American Revolution.
fine windblown yellow soil
rational thinking
epic march in which a group of Chinese Communists retreated from Guomindang forces by marching over 6,000 miles
six-foot-long bow that could rapidly fire arrows with enough force to pierce most armor
Louis IX (1214–1270) was King of France from 1226 to 1270. He was one of the most popular kings of France. He led the Seventh Crusade to the Holy Land and was canonized as a saint in recognition of his faith and services to the Church.
Louis Philippe (1773–1850) was king of France from 1830 to 1848. He was known as the Citizen King because the people put him on the throne. He ultimately lost power because he did not support the working classes.
Louis XIV (1638–1715) served as king of France (1643–1715) and is considered the symbol of absolute monarchy.
Louis XVI (1754–1793) was king of pre-revolutionary France. He failed to support his ministers, who tried to reform France’s finances and social institutions. Although he agreed in 1789 to summon the Estates-General, he resisted demands for reform by the National Assembly. He was later branded a traitor and executed in 1793.
territory purchased by Thomas Jefferson from France in 1803
German air force
British liner torpedoed by a German submarine in May 1915
Martin Luther (1483–1546) was a German monk and theologian who was the catalyst of the Protestant Reformation. Trained to become a lawyer, he changed his path, joined a strict order of Roman Catholic monks, and studied theology. Seeking to reform abuses within the Church, Luther challenged Church teachings with his 95 Theses. This led to his excommunication and the development of Lutheranism, the first of several Protestant sects.
Wangari Maathai (1940–2011) was the founder of the Green Belt Movement as well as a human rights, AIDs prevention, and women’s rights activist. She was elected to Kenya’s national assembly in 2002 and won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2004.
region of southeastern China made up of a peninsula and two islands; the Ming dynasty allowed the Portuguese to set up a trading post here
Douglas MacArthur (1880–1964) led the Allied assaults in the Southwest Pacific. He also commanded troops in World War I and the Korean War. He became a general and army chief of staff during the Depression.
Lord Macartney (1737–1806) Born to a Scots-Irish family in Ireland, Lord Macartney served as a member of the British Parliament, chief secretary for Ireland, and governor of several British colonies. King George III sent him on an unsuccessful mission to persuade Emperor Qianlong of China to allow British traders into northern port cities. He later became governor of the colony at the Cape of Good Hope.
Machiavelli (1469–1527) was born in Florence. He was a Renaissance political philosopher, statesman, and writer. His most famous work was a guide for rulers on how to gain and keep power. The Prince was realistic about political power. Machiavelli argued that the end justified the means in politics. The term “Machiavellian” is still used today to describe deceitful politics.
James Madison (1751–1836) was a renowned U.S. statesman and fourth president of the United States. He is often called the “father of the Constitution” for the major role he played at the Constitutional Convention of 1789, which framed the federal Constitution.
Ferdinand Magellan (1480–1521) was a Portuguese navigator and explorer who as a young man went on Portuguese expeditions to India and Africa, and later won Spanish support for his September 1519 expedition to sail west to reach the Moluccas. Beginning with five ships and a crew of 270, the long voyage through unknown waters encountered rough weather, scurvy, starvation, and eventual mutiny. Magellan was killed in 1521 during a battle in the present-day Philippines, and only one of his ships, carrying spices and 18 of the original crew, circumnavigated the world and at last returned to Spain in September 1522.
massive fortifications built by the French along their border with Germany in the 1930s to protect against invasion
The Great Charter approved by King John of England in 1215; it limited royal power and established certain rights of English freemen
an ethnic group centered in present-day Hungary
a Muslim savior of the faith according to some Muslim beliefs
corn
city located on the Malay Peninsula near the strategic Straits of Malacca
medieval West African trading empire located in present-day Mali
Malinche (c. 1501–1550) was a young Indian woman, called Doña Marina by the Spanish, who spoke Maya and Aztec languages, learned Spanish, and served as Cortés’s translator and advisor during his conquest of Mexico. Malinche converted to Christianity, later married one of Cortés’s soldiers, and visited Spain, where she enjoyed a friendly reception at the Spanish court.
existing East African coastal city and hub of international trade, attacked in the 1400s by Portuguese explorers to expel the Arabs who control East African trade routes, and then take over those routes for themselves
Thomas Malthus (1766–1834) was a British economist. He was born in Surrey to a wealthy family. After being educated at home, he attended college in Cambridge, where he earned a master’s degree. His most well-known work is An Essay on the Principle of Population. In it, he argued that population increases would eventually use up the food supply, leading to poverty. He was a professor of history and political economy until his death.
industrial city in northern Britain that was part of the first major railway line; it went from Manchester to Liverpool
historic province in northeastern China; rich in natural resources
people originally from Manchuria, north of China, who conquered the Ming dynasty and ruled China as the Qing dynasty from the mid-1600s to the early 1900s
after World War I, a territory administered by a Western power
Osip Mandelstam (1891–1938?) grew up in St. Petersburg, Russia, in a Jewish household. Although Mandelstam is remembered as one of the foremost Russian poets of the 20th century, most of his work went unpublished during his lifetime. The Communists sent him into exile for a second time in 1938, and his wife, Nadezhda Khazina, received his last communication some months afterwards. He was never heard from again, but through the tireless efforts of his wife, the majority of Mandelstam’s work was saved for future generations.
code name for the project to build the first atomic bomb during WWII
American idea that the United States should stretch across the entire North American continent
during the Middle Ages in Europe, a lord’s estate that included one or more villages and the surrounding lands
also called manorial system; economic system during the Middle Ages in Europe that was built around large estates called manors, which included one or more villages and the surrounding lands
Mansa Musa (died c. 1337) was a devoted Islamic ruler of Mali who came to the throne in 1312 and expanded Mali’s borders to the Atlantic Ocean. He was one of the richest men of his era. His famous journey to Mecca was lavish and awakened the world to the riches of Mali.
Mao Zedong (1893–1976) was born in central China to a peasant family. He helped form the Chinese Communist Party in 1921. After Jiang Jieshi launched “extermination campaigns” against the Communists, Mao led his army on the epic Long March. Mao briefly joined with the Guomindang to suppress Japanese aggression, but the partnership did not last after World War II ended. The People’s Republic of China was established in 1949. Mao initiated drastic reforms, some of which had disastrous consequences. Mao’s use of terror and intolerance of opposition became internationally notorious.
the indigenous people of New Zealand
planned march of thousands of Fascist supporters to take control of Rome; in response Mussolini was given the legal right to control Italy
Guglielmo Marconi (1874–1937) was an Italian inventor who received the first patent for a wireless telegraphy system. In 1900, Marconi proved that wireless waves were not affected by Earth’s shape when he transmitted a wireless signal across the Atlantic ocean for a distance of 2,100 miles. He continued to study waves, which resulted in a beam system for long distance communication, the first microwave radio, and the principles of radar. He received many honors and awards, including the Nobel Prize in Physics.
Ferdinand Marcos (1917–1989) was the authoritarian leader of the Philippines from 1966–1986. Formerly a lawyer, Marcos won democratic presidential elections in the Philippines in 1965 and 1969. His reign became increasingly marked by corruption and human-rights incidents. In 1972, he declared martial law and persecuted his opponents. When exiled politician and Marcos critic Benigno Aquino, Jr., was assassinated, the majority of Filipinos threw their support behind his widow, Corazon, in the 1986 presidential election. After a contested loss, Marcos and his wife fled to exile in Hawaii.
Maria Theresa (1717–1780) was the archduchess of Austria and queen of Hungary and Bohemia (1740–1780), wife and empress of the Holy Roman emperor Francis I (1745–1765) and mother of the Holy Roman emperor Joseph II (1765–1790).
Marie Antoinette’s (1755–1793) frivolous ways, conduct, and various scandals helped discredit the monarchy. She told her husband, Louis XVI, to resist reform demands by the National Assembly. Like Louis, she was branded a traitor and executed.
French port city; troops marched to a patriotic song as they left the city, the song eventually became the French national anthem
massive aid package offered by the U.S. to Europe to help countries rebuild after World War II
Charles Martel (688–741) served as mayor of the palace (the person who ruled in the name of the king) for the eastern part of the Frankish kingdom from 715 until 741. The illegitimate son of the former mayor, Martel seized power, eventually reunited, and then ruled the entire kingdom of the Franks. Since 711, Muslims had raided Frankish lands, and in 732 they reached Bordeaux. Called to help at the battle of Tours that year, Charles’s cavalry halted this last great Muslim advance into Europe.
a person who suffers or dies because of his or her beliefs
Mary Tudor (1516–1558) was the first queen to rule England in her own right. The daughter of Henry VIII and his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, Mary was a staunch Catholic who failed to turn back the tide of the Protestant Reformation in England. Her vigorous persecution of Protestants earned her the nickname “Bloody Mary.”
kinship ties that are passed on through the mother’s side of the family
Chandragupta Maurya, who reigned from about 321 B.C. to 297 B.C., was the first Mauryan emperor. The son of a Mauryan chief, his family was left in poverty when his father died. After overcoming many challenges, Chandragupta learned military tactics and eventually formed a force strong enough to conquer most of India.
cultural movement in China that sought to reform China and make it stronger
farms, factories, railways, and other large businesses that produce and distribute goods
a city in western Saudi Arabia; birthplace of Muhammad, viewed by Muslims as the prophet of Islam, and the most holy city for Islamic people
referring to the Middle Ages in Europe or the period of history between ancient and modern times
a city in western Saudi Arabia; a city where Muhammad preached
in Japan, the reign of emperor Meiji from 1868 to 1912 that was marked by rapid industrialization
Golda Meir (1898–1978) was a founder and the first female prime minister of Israel (1969–1974). She was a founding member of the Israel Labour Party and had been foreign minister (1956–1966).
Menelik II (1844–1913) was the emperor of Ethiopia who expanded his empire, modernized his country, and defeated the Italian invasion in 1896.
policy by which a nation sought to export more than it imported in order to build its supply of gold and silver
soldiers serving in a foreign army for pay
soldier serving in a foreign country for pay
capital of the ancient kingdom of Nubia
the largest complex of Anasazi cliff-dwellings in the North American Southwest, built between A.D. 1150 and A.D. 1300
region of North America, including Mexico and Central America, in which civilizations with common cultural features developed before Europeans entered the continent
region within the Fertile Crescent that lies between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
savior sent by God
in Spanish colonial America, a person of Native American and European descent
people of mixed Native American and French Canadian descent
Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475–1564) was an Italian painter also known for his sculpture, engineering, architecture, and poems. His famous marble statue, David, shows the influence of ancient Greek traditions on Renaissance artists. Michelangelo painted biblically themed ceiling murals for the Sistine Chapel in Rome. As an architect, he designed the dome of St. Peter’s Cathedral in Rome, later a model for the U.S. Capitol in Washington D.C.
a group of people, including merchants, traders, and artisans, whose rank was between nobles and peasants
the leg of the triangular trade route on which slaves were transported from Africa to the Americas
glorification of the military
armed group of citizen soldiers
Slobodan Milosevic (1941–2006) was a Serbian Socialist party leader, whose Serbian nationalist policies contributed to the breakup of the former Yugoslavia. He died in The Hague, Netherlands, while on trial at the UN’s International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) for his role in the genocide in the Balkans.
slender tower of a mosque, from which Muslims are called to prayer
Chinese dynasty in which Chinese rule was restored; held power from 1368 to 1644
someone sent to do religious work in a territory or foreign country
prepare military forces for war
(1930–1997) was born Joseph-Desire Mobutu. He changed his name after he took control of Congo in 1965 in a military coup. He also renamed the country Zaire. Mobutu ruled Zaire as a dictator until he was overthrown by Laurent Kabila in 1997. He died of cancer a short time later.
a culture that thrived in the Andean region from about 400 B.C. to A.D. 600
Moctezuma (Moctezuma II, 1466–c. June 30, 1520) was the last Aztec emperor, who mistakenly thought that the conquistador Cortés might be the god-king Quetzalcoatl. He was defeated by Cortés and forced to sign over his land and treasure. He was taken prisoner and killed as the Aztecs attempted to drive the Spanish from Tenochtitlán.
ancient city of the Indus civilization, located in present-day Pakistan
in Hindu belief, the ultimate goal of existence, which is to achieve union with Brahman
an island chain in present-day Indonesia, which Europeans in the 1400s called the Spice Islands because it was the chief source of spices
established East African coastal city and hub of international trade, attacked in the 1400s by Portuguese explorers to expel the Arabs who controlled East African trade routes, so they could take over those routes for themselves
Claude Monet (1840–1926) was one of the leading figures in the French Impressionist movement. Much like the Romantics, the Impressionists found inspiration in the outdoors and rejected traditional European artistic conventions. Monet sought to create an accurate depiction of nature through his use of color, tones, texture, and brush strokes. He often painted the same object or scene at different times of day to see how light and shadow changed its appearance. Two of his most famous series are the grain stacks and water lily pond.
economic system in which goods or services are paid for through the exchange of a token of an agreed value
Mongkut (1804–1868) was king of Siam (modern-day Thailand) from 1851–1868. Mongkut lived as a Buddhist monk while his older brother held the throne. Upon his brother’s death, Mongkut’s many influential friends helped him become king. The learned king was fond of Western philosophies and worked to modernize his kingdom. His educated children were able to further his progress after his death.
complete control of a product or business by one person or a group
believing in one god
American policy of discouraging European intervention in the Western Hemisphere
seasonal wind that regularly blows from a certain direction for part of the year
Baron de Montesquieu (1689–1755) was born Charles Louis de Secondat into a family of wealth and inherited the title Baron de Montesquieu from his uncle. Like many other reformers, he did not let his privileged status keep him from becoming a voice for democracy. His first book, titled Persian Letters, ridiculed the French government and social classes. In his work published in 1748, The Spirit of the Laws, he advanced the idea of separation of powers—a foundation of modern American democracy.
Thomas More (1478–1535) was born in London. He became a lawyer, scholar, writer, and member of British parliament during the reign of Henry VIII. He wrote Utopia, describing an ideal society. The word utopian came to mean idealistic or visionary. In 1521, he was knighted.
Father José Morelos (1765–1815) was a Catholic priest who took command of the revolutionary movement after Father Miguel Hidalgo’s death. He led the movement throughout southern Mexico, and in 1813, he called the Congress of Chilpancingo to form a government. In 1815 he was captured and executed as a traitor.
picture made of chips of colored stone or glass
As described in the Hebrew Bible, Moses was a Jewish religious leader who led the Israelites out of Egyptian slavery back to Canaan. Jews believe that during the journey, or Exodus, God presented Moses with a set of religious and ethical laws for the Jewish people known as the Ten Commandments.
Muslim house of worship
a short phrase that expresses core beliefs
a movement of women who protested weekly in a central plaza in the capital of Argentina against the disappearance or killing of relatives
Muslim dynasty that ruled much of present-day India from 1526 to 1857
Muslim empire that ruled most of northern India from the mid-1500s to the mid-1700s; also known as the Mogul empire
Muhammad (c. 570–632) introduced the religion of Islam to southwestern Asia. According to Muslim belief, Muhammad heard the voice of the angel Gabriel instructing him to serve as a messenger for God. Muhammad spent the rest of his life spreading Islam. Muslims today honor Muhammad as God’s final prophet.
Muhammad Ahmad (1844–1885) assumed the title and role of Mahdi in 1881, believing he was appointed by God to purify the Muslim religion and restore its greatness. Through his campaigns, he created a vast Islamic state in the Sudan region.
Muhammad al-Razi (865–925) was a renowned Muslim physician who pioneered the study of many diseases. In addition to a well-received book on measles and smallpox, he also wrote texts about the history of medicine and ways to advance the field. Al-Razi held the position of chief physician, first in the city of Rayy and then in Baghdad. Also a philosopher, al-Razi analyzed the works of Plato while presenting his own ideas.
Muhammad Ali (1769–1849) was the son of a military commander who died when Muhammad Ali was a young boy. He was appointed governor of Egypt by the Ottomans and seized power during the chaos of the civil war following Napoleon’s invasion. Often called the “founder of modern Egypt,” Muhammad Ali set in motion a number of economic, political, administrative, and military reforms. His reforms were intended to secure Egyptian independence and place Egypt on the road to becoming a major Middle Eastern power.
Muslim religious warriors
in Spanish colonial America, a person of African and European descent
made up of several ethnic groups
company with branches in many countries
a large city in India, also known as Bombay
the preservation of dead bodies by embalming and wrapping them in cloth
Benito Mussolini (1883–1945) was born into a poor household in Italy. His father was a blacksmith and his mother a schoolteacher. Although Mussolini grew up in a socialist home and strongly advocated socialist policies as a young man, he formed the Fascist party in Italy after returning from fighting in World War I. Using terror and fear tactics together with the Black Shirts, Mussolini created and ruled Italy as a totalitarian state. After Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935, Mussolini and Hitler made an alliance and, with Japan, fought against the Allies in World War II.
revolt, especially of soldiers or sailors against their officers
Mutsuhito (1852–1912) was declared emperor Meiji in 1868 following the death of his father, the emperor Komei. Emperor Meiji embodied a blend of Western and Japanese ideals, seeking out foreign examples as models for his country. He initiated major political, economic, and cultural reforms that led to an era of rapid modernization.
self-help group to aid sick or injured workers
person who devotes his or her life to seeking direct communication with the divine
Japanese city; on an island in its harbor, the Tokugawa shoguns in the 1600s permitted one or two Dutch ships to trade with Japan each year
Guru Nanak (1469–c. 1539) was the founder of Sikhism. According to Sikh beliefs, Nanak entered a trance while swimming and experienced a spiritual revelation. He preached a message of equality and opportunity, and of one God for all humanity. His teachings, and those of his successors, shaped the core beliefs of Sikhism.
Napoleon III (1808–1873) was the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte. He was president of the Second Republic (1850–1852), then emperor of the Second Empire of France (1852–1870). Napoleon III built France’s economic and political power, but his foreign policies were unsuccessful. He was deposed in 1870 after France’s defeat in the Franco-Prussian War.
body of French civil laws introduced in 1804; served as a model for many nations’ civil codes
a series of wars from 1804 to 1805 that pitted Napoleon’s French empire against the major powers of Europe
Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918–1970) was the president of Egypt (1956–1970). He nationalized the Suez Canal, was a leader of the Pan Arab movement, and allied Egypt with the Soviet Union during the Cold War. He led his country to war with Israel in 1956 and 1967.
takeover of property or resources by the government
unchanging principle, discovered through reason, that governs human conduct
rights that belongs to all humans from birth, such as life, liberty, and property
a culture that thrived in the Andean region from about 200 B.C. to A.D. 600
agreement between Germany and the Soviet Union in 1939 in which the two nations promised not to fight each other and to divide up land in Eastern Europe
(634 B.C.–562 B.C.) Nebuchadnezzar was king of the Babylonian empire from 605 B.C. to 562 B.C. He led several military campaigns, which expanded the empire to Aramea, Judah, and other cities. He rebuilt the city of Babylon and is credited with the construction of the famous Hanging Gardens.
Jacques Necker (1732–1804) was director of the French treasury before the revolution, Necker attempted to reform the country’s finances, although he also tried to finance France’s participation in the American Revolution through heavy borrowing, while trying to conceal the country’s huge deficit. Later, his calls for reform were thwarted by Louis XVI.
movement in which writers and artists of African descent expressed pride in their African heritage
Nehanda (c. 1840–1898) was a spiritual leader of the Shona people in southern Africa and the inspiration for a revolt against the British South Africa Company’s colonization of the territory that is now Zimbabwe. She was eventually captured and executed by the British.
Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964) was the first prime minister of independent India. Educated in England, Nehru returned to India to practice law. He joined the Indian National Congress, an independence movement led by Mohandas Gandhi. Named Gandhi’s successor, Nehru led the Congress until India achieved independence from Great Britain. As prime minister, Nehru focused on industrialization, socialist economic policies, and neutrality in the Cold War.
the final era of prehistory, which began about 9000. B.C.; also called the New Stone Age
the period of time during which the introduction of agriculture led people to transition from nomadic to settled life
policy of supporting neither side in a war
a series of acts passed by the U.S. Congress from 1935 to 1939 that aimed to keep the U.S. from becoming involved in WWII
a massive package of economic and social programs established by Franklin Delano Roosevelt to help Americans during the Great Depression
French possessions in present-day Canada from the 1500s to 1763
the final era of prehistory, which began about 9000 B.C.; also called the Neolithic Period
Isaac Newton (1642–1727) was one of the most important figures of the Scientific Revolution. An English mathematician and physicist, Newton’s three laws of motion form the basic principles of modern physics and led to the formulation of the universal law of gravity. His 1687 book, Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, is considered one of the most important works in the history of modern science.
Florence Nightingale (1820–1910) was a nurse in the British military hospital in Crimea. When she arrived at the hospital in 1854, she was shocked by the state of the hospital and the rate at which the men were dying. She fought to have the barracks cleared, latrines dug, laundry washed, and the sick cared for. Six months after her arrival, the death rate dropped from 60 percent to 2 percent. When she returned to Britain, she pressured the government to reform hospitals to improve sanitation and care.
in Buddhist belief, union with the universe and release from the cycle of rebirth
(1909–1972) fought to make Ghana (then Gold Coast) independent from Britain. He then became the first president of independent Ghana, which he led from 1957 until he was forced from office during a military coup. He spent the rest of his life in Guinea.
in Iraq, area where the United States and its allies banned flights by Iraqi aircraft after the 1991 Gulf War
Alfred Nobel (1833–1896) was a Swedish chemist, inventor, engineer, business man, and author. Although dynamite is his most well-known invention, he holds 355 patents. In 1895, Nobel bequeathed most of his fortune to create the Nobel Prize in order to honor men and women for important achievements in physics, chemistry, medicine, literature, and peace.
person who moves from place to place in search of food
political and diplomatic independence from both Cold War powers
a military alliance between several North Atlantic states to safeguard them from the presumed threat of the Soviet Union’s communist bloc; countries from other regions later joined the alliance
the northeastern portion of the island of Ireland, a part of the United Kingdom that has had a long religious conflict
ancient kingdom of northeastern Africa, also called Kush
laws approved by the Nazi Party in 1935, depriving Jews of German citizenship and taking some rights away from them
series of war crimes trials held in Germany after WWII
the era of prehistory that lasted from 2 million B.C. to about 9000 B.C.
Located in eastern Africa, the gorge is made up of numerous sedimentary layers of ash and lava deposited over millions of years. It has provided archaeologists with a geological yardstick for measuring the age of early stone tools and hominid bones excavated at the site.
member of an oligarchy; typically a wealthy person with political power
government in which ruling power belongs to a few people
the earliest American civilization, located along the Gulf Coast of Mexico from about 1200 B.C. to 400 B.C.
a Chinese government policy limiting urban families to a single child
American approach to China around 1900, favoring open trade relations between China and other nations
war between Great Britain and China over restrictions to foreign trade
in Shang China, animal bone or turtle shell used by priests to predict the future
a group formed in 1948 to promote democracy, economic cooperation, and human rights in the Americas
Osiris is the Egyptian god identified as the god of the afterlife. He is often depicted as a green-skinned man with a pharaoh’s beard, partially mummy-wrapped at the legs wearing a crown with ostrich feathers, holding a symbolic crook.
practice used in ancient Greece to banish or send away a public figure who threatened democracy
a member of a Turkish-speaking nomadic people who migrated from Central Asia into northwestern Asia Minor
a distant military station or a remote settlement
the practice of sending work to outside enterprises in order to save money or increase efficiency
condition in which production of goods exceeds the demand for them
Robert Owen (1771–1858) set up a model community in New Lanark, Scotland based on Utopianism. At New Lanark, Owen established revolutionary changes by limiting the age for children workers and providing a school for all children. In 1824, he invested in an experimental community in America called New Harmony. He became a leader in the labor movement in England and continued his involvement in the movement until his death.
Yoruba people formed this state in present-day southwestern Nigeria in the 1600s. This empire used wealth from trade, including slave trading, to maintain a trained army and to eventually conquer the neighboring Dahomey kingdom. The Yoruba people then traded with European merchants from Dahomey’s ports.
Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui (1438–1471) was a skilled warrior growing up. He expanded the Inca empire to what is now Peru and Ecuador. His capital was Cuzco, and he is credited with developing its city plan.
vast region of nations, including countries in Southeast Asia, East Asia, and the Americas, that border the Pacific Ocean
opposition to all war
rice field
multi-storied Buddhist temple with eaves that curve up at the corners
the era of prehistory that lasted from at least 2 million B.C. to about 9000 B.C.; also called the Old Stone Age
movement which began in the 1920s that emphasized the unity and strength of Africans and people of African descent around the world
movement in which Arabs sought to unite all Arabs into one state
manmade waterway connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans
spread of a disease across a large area, country, continent, or the entire world
the claim of medieval popes that they had authority over all secular rulers
plant used to make a paper-like writing material in ancient Egypt
the legislature of England, and later of Great Britain
a form of government in which the executive leaders (usually a prime minister and cabinet) are chosen by and responsible to the legislature (parliament), are also members of it
the chief temple of the Greek goddess Athena on the Acropolis in Athens, Greece
a division into pieces
a group of merchants who joined together to finance a large-scale venture that would have been too costly for any individual trader
provincial ruler in the Ottoman empire
Boris Pasternak (1890–1960) grew up in an well-educated Jewish family. His father was an artist and professor, while his mother was an accomplished concert pianist. Pasternak is best remembered for his epic novel Doctor Zhivago, which helped him to win the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1958. The accolades and publicity from the West only created problems for Pasternak at home in the Soviet Union. He was expelled from the Union of Soviet Writers and died in poverty. Pasternak’s literary masterpiece remained banned in the Soviet Union until the mid-1980s.
Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) was a French chemist and one of the founders of microbiology. Pasteur developed the germ theory of disease and identified the causes of many diseases, including rabies, anthrax, small pox, and chicken cholera. By discovering the causes of these diseases, Pasteur determined that they could be prevented by vaccines. He helped develop several vaccines, including the rabies vaccine. He also invented the process of pasteurization for wine, beer, milk, and vinegar.
the system of governing a country as a father would a child
in the Roman and Byzantine empires, the highest church official in a major city
relating to a society in which men hold the greatest legal and moral authority
a member of the land-holding upper class
kinship ties that are passed on through the father’s side of the family
a person who provides financial support for the arts
Paul (c. 4 B.C.–A.D. 64 ) was an early opponent of Christianity who, after having a vision, was converted to the teachings of Jesus. He became a missionary to spread the teachings of Jesus.
series of treaties that ended the Thirty Years’ War
Dom Pedro (1825–1891) was the second and final emperor of Brazil. Pedro II turned Portugese-speaking Brazil into an emerging power. He created political stability and sought to protect freedom of speech and civil rights. Dom Pedro’s government was a parliamentary monarchy. Under his leadership, Brazil experienced significant economic growth. His reign ended in 1889 after a military coup took control of the government and forced him into exile in Europe.
place where people convicted of crimes are sent
in Spanish colonial America, a person born in Spain
a worker forced to labor for a landlord to pay off a debt that is impossible to pay off in his or her lifetime, which is incurred by food, tool, or seeds the landlord has advanced to him or her
system by which workers owe labor to pay their debts
a Soviet policy of democratic and free-market reforms introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev in the late 1980s
(495 B.C.–429 B.C.) was an Athenian statesman in the 400s B.C. who led Athens during its golden age of cultural achievement under democratic government
Juan Perón (1895–1974) was first elected president of Argentina in 1946. He ruled with the help of his wife, Eva, who was popular with Argentinians. Perón established an authoritarian government and instituted broad reforms, but his government was plagued with corruption. He was overthrown in a coup in 1955. His supporters, known as Peronists, continued to fight for control of the government, and Perón returned to power in the 1970s. His third wife, Isabel, became president upon her husband’s death in 1974. She was overthrown by the military in 1976.
Matthew Perry (1794–1858) was a successful officer in the U.S. Navy. He led a naval expedition to Japan in an effort to establish diplomatic and trade relations after centuries of Japanese isolation. The overwhelming military presence opened the way for U.S. trading privileges in Japan, with other Western powers soon to follow.
artistic technique used to give paintings and drawings a three-dimensional effect
Peter the Great (1672–1725), tsar of Russia, reigned jointly with his half-brother Ivan V (1682–1696) and alone (1696–1725). He was proclaimed emperor in 1721. He was one of Russia’s greatest statesmen, organizers, and reformers.
Francesco Petrarch (1304–1374) lived in Florence and was an early Renaissance humanist, poet, and scholar. He assembled a library of Greek and Roman manuscripts gathered from monasteries and churches, helping to preserve these classic works for future generations.
in ancient Greece, a massive tactical formation of heavily armed foot soldiers
title of the rulers of ancient Egypt
Philip II (359 B.C.–336 B.C.), restored internal peace to Macedonia, built an effective army, and then formed alliances with many Greek city-states or conquered them. After defeating the united forces of Athens and Thebes at Chaeronea, all of Greece came under his control. Assassination ended his aim to conquer Persia.
Philip II (1527-1598) served as king of the Spaniards (1556-1598) and king of the Portuguese as Philip I (1580-1598), and strong supporter of the Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation. Under his rule, the Spanish empire was at its strongest; however, he was unable to control the revolt of the Netherlands and failed in his attempt to invade England.
a country in southeastern Asia made up of several thousand islands; seized by the Spanish in the 1500s; became an important link in Spain’s overseas trading empire as the destination of silver fleets sent from the Americas
French for “philosopher”; French thinker who desired reform in society during the Enlightenment
someone who seeks to understand and explain life; a person who studies philosophy
system of ideas
Piankhi was king of Kush from around 750 to 719 B.C. He was known for his military prowess throughout North Africa. A very conservative ruler, Piankhi sought to strengthen some of Egypt’s declining institutions.
a simple drawing that looks like the object it represents
English Protestants who rejected the Church of England
Christine de Pisan (c. 1364–1430) was the daughter of a physician and astronomer in the French court. Highly educated, de Pisan spoke several languages. After being widowed at 25, she began to write poetry and then comment on social issues.
Francisco Pizarro (c. 1476–June 26, 1541) was born into a very poor Spanish family and in 1513 joined Balboa’s expedition to discover the “South Sea.” In 1532, he arrived in Peru with his brothers, deposed the Incan ruler Atahualpa, conquered Peru, founded Lima in 1535, and was later assassinated by Spanish rivals.
large estate run by an overseer and worked by laborers who live there
Plato (437 B.C.–347 B.C.), a student of Socrates, was an Athenian thinker, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens.
a members of the class that included farmers, merchants, artisans, and traders
a ballot in which voters have a direct say on an issue
violent attack on a Jewish community
Pol Pot (1925–1998) was the leader of the Khmer Rouge, a communist guerrilla army that took over Cambodia in 1975. Under his rule, roughly two million of his nation’s people died from murder, starvation, and disease. In 1979, Pol Pot was driven from power. He was captured in 1997, tried, and sentenced to life imprisonment. He died of natural causes while under house arrest.
in a political context, a concentration of people in distinct camps at opposite extremes of the political spectrum
city-state in ancient Greece
Marco Polo (c. 1254–1324) was a traveler, merchant, and adventurer from Venice who journeyed from Europe to Asia in 1271–95, spending 17 years serving the Mongol emperor Kublai Khan. Polo dictated the account of his travels, The Travels of Marco Polo (originally iii Il Milione in Italian), to a fellow prisoner while imprisoned during a war with Genoa. His book proved a great success, but few readers believed it was true. Evidence outside his book that he journeyed so far to the east has not been found; however, during the centuries since his death, others have confirmed the accuracy of most of what he described.
believing in many gods
head of the Roman Catholic Church; in ancient Rome, bishop of Rome who claimed authority over all other bishops
division of government into groups to limit its power
people control all political power
among Native American groups of the Northwest Coast, ceremonial gift-giving by people of high rank and wealth
Calvinist belief that God long ago determined who would gain salvation
prime minister
period in European history when inflation rose rapidly
the chief executive of a parliamentary government
Dutch, English, and French pirates who preyed on treasure ships from the Americas in the 1500s, operating with the approval of European governments
a ban on the manufacture and sale of alcohol in the United States from 1920 to 1933
working class
to multiply rapidly
spreading of ideas to promote a cause or to damage an opposing cause
spiritual leader who interprets God’s will
the use of tariffs and other restrictions to protect a country’s home industries against competition
country with its own government but under the control of an outside power
area of eastern and central Europe which came under Polish and German rule in the Middle Ages and from 1701 was ruled by the German Hohenzollern dynasty
a method of studying how the mind works and treating mental disorders
Ptolemy (A.D. 100–A.D. 170) was a Roman astronomer, mathematician, and geographer who incorrectly theorized that Earth is the center of the universe. He lived in Alexandria, Egypt, where he studied the planets and stars and developed a system to explain their movements.
Native American village of the North American Southwest
the largest Anasazi pueblo, built in New Mexico in the A.D. 900s
state in northwestern India with a largely Sikh population
isolation of women in separate quarters
member of an English Protestant group who wanted to “purify” the Church of England by making it more simple and more morally strict
a defensive line around the city of Pusan, in the southeast corner of Korea, held by South Korean and United Nations forces in 1950 during the Korean War; marks the farthest advance of North Korean forces
Vladimir Putin (b. 1952) served as president of Russia (1999–2008, 2012–). He began his career with the Soviet KGB (Committee for State Security) and also served as Russia’s prime minister (1999, 2008–2012).
system developed in the 18th century in which tasks were distributed to individuals who completed the work in their own homes; also known as cottage industry
Pythagoras (570 B.C.–c. 490 B.C.), a Greek philosopher and mathematician who studied the meaning of numbers and their relationships. He formulated principles that influenced the thinking of Plato and Aristotle, and also established an academy in Croton (now in Italy). Today he is best known for deriving the Pythagorean Theorem, a formula to calculate the relationship between the sides of a right triangle.
a member of the dynasty that ruled present-day Iran from the late 1700s until 1925
Qianlong (1711–1799) was a Chinese emperor who expanded the size of China’s empire to include Tibet and much of central Asia, creating a multiethnic state that included Han Chinese, Mongols, Tibetans, and Manchus. Qianlong saw himself as a “Universal Monarch” both within and beyond the Chinese empire. He patronized the arts, commissioned great literary works, and formed China’s national palace museum with art collections that remain important today.
dynasty established by the Manchus in the mid-1600s that lasted until the early 1900s; China’s last dynasty
knotted strings used by Inca officials for record-keeping
the holy book of Islam
Yitzhak Rabin (1922–1995) was born in Jerusalem and served as an important military leader both before and after the creation of Israel. He served as prime minister twice, from 1974 to 1977 and from 1992 to 1995. In the 1990s, he reached a peace agreement with the PLO, for which he shared the Nobel Peace Prize with Shimon Peres and Yasir Arafat. Rabin was assassinated in 1995 by a Jewish extremist.
belief that one racial group is superior to another
one who favors extreme changes
in ancient India, the elected warrior chief of an Aryan tribe
(1292 B.C.–1190 B.C.) Ramses II is known for his building programs and for the wars he waged with the Hittites and Libyans. He reigned for more than 66 years and is known for the construction of Egypt’s most famous monuments and architecture.
Raphael (1483–1520) was a Renaissance painter who blended Christian and classical styles. His famous paintings include one of the Madonna, the mother of Jesus, and School of Athens, showing an imaginary gathering of great thinkers, scientists, and artists including Michelangelo, Leonardo, and himself.
19th-century artistic movement whose aim was to represent the world as it is
realistic politics based on the needs of the state
a person who flees from home or country to seek refuge elsewhere, often because of political upheaval or famine
loyalty to a local area
German empire
time period during the French Revolution from September 1793 to July 1794 when people in France were arrested for not supporting the revolution and many were executed
in Hindu belief, the rebirth of the soul in another bodily form
government in which the people elect representatives who act on their behalf
payment for war damage or damage caused by imprisonment
cancel
system of government in which officials are chosen by the people
money earned by selling goods and services
Syngman Rhee (1875–1965) was president of the Republic of Korea (South Korea) from its founding in 1949 until 1960. He was elected to four terms of office, but accusations of election fraud in 1960 led to student-led protests and demands for his resignation from the National Assembly and the U.S. government. He resigned and went into exile in Hawaii.
art of skillful speaking
Matteo Ricci (1552–1610) was an Italian scholar and Jesuit priest who traveled to China. In 1589, Ricci began to teach Chinese scholars European mathematical ideas. Later he lived in Nanjing, where he worked on mathematics, astronomy, and geography. He became famous in China for his knowledge of astronomy, writing books in Chinese, and his talents as a painter.
Cardinal Richelieu (1585–1642) considered one of the greatest politicians in history, he played an important role in France’s history while serving as chief minister to Louis XIII.
Maximilien Robespierre (1758–1794) was a French revolutionary elected to the Estates-General in 1789. He later became an important member of the Jacobin club and a member of the Committee of Public Safety. As a member of the Committee he began the Reign of Terror. He was later arrested and executed by the revolution’s leaders.
personal, elegant style of art and architecture made popular during the mid-1700s that featured designs with the shapes of leaves, shells, and flowers
19th-century artistic movement that appealed to emotion rather than reason
Oscar Romero (1917–1980) was a Roman Catholic archbishop in El Salvador who became an outspoken critic of human rights abuses in his country and an advocate for the poor. He frequently came into conflict with the Salvadoran government for his criticism of the regime, and he was assassinated in 1980 while performing mass in a hospital chapel, most likely by Salvadoran death squads.
Erwin Rommel (1891–1944) was a career military officer and one of Hitler’s most successful generals. He took his own life after a failed attempt to assassinate Hitler.
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882–1945) was the longest serving American president, elected to the office four times. Roosevelt was born into a wealthy family in New York and was a distant cousin of the early president Theodore Roosevelt. Elected in 1932, his first term as president focused on lifting America out of the Great Depression. He successfully passed legislation, crafting a massive package of economic and social programs, called the New Deal. During his third term, Roosevelt inspired many through his strong leadership during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and America’s subsequent entry into World War II. He was elected to a fourth term in 1944, but his health deteriorated as the war came to an end. Roosevelt died in April 1945.
stone monument that includes the same passage carved in hieroglyphics, demotic script, and Greek and that was used to decipher the meanings of many hieroglyphs
popular name for women who worked in war industries during WWII
rural town in England that sent members to Parliament despite having few or no voters
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) was a Swiss-born philosopher and writer whose works inspired leaders of the French Revolution. He revolutionized thought in politics and ethics, had an impact on how parents educated their children, and even influenced people’s taste in music and in other arts.
Ram Mohun Roy (1772–1833) was a founder of Hindu College in Calcutta, which provided an English-style education to Indians. While Roy wanted to reform some parts of traditional Indian and Hindu culture, he also revived India’s pride in its culture. He is considered the founder of Indian nationalism.
coal-rich industrial region of Germany
Stalin’s policy of imposing Russian culture on the Soviet Union
conflict between Russia and Japan in 1904–1905 over control of Korea and Manchuria
a holy day for rest and worship
sacred ritual of the Roman Catholic Church
Anwar Sadat (1918–1981) was president of Egypt (1970–1981). He signed a peace treaty with Israel, the Camp David Accords, which was brokered by the U.S. He was assassinated by Muslim extremists in 1981.
Saddam Hussein (1937–2006) was a member of the Ba’ath Party and spent several years in prison when the Ba’athists were not in power. In 1968, he participated in a coup where the Ba’athists took over the government, and by 1979 he had total control of the government. Hussein was the dictator of Iraq until the 2003 Iraq War. In 2006, he was convicted in an Iraqi court of crimes against humanity and executed shortly afterward.
Shiite Muslim dynasty that ruled much of present-day Iran from the 1500s into the 1700s
largest desert in the world, covering almost all of North Africa
St. Francis of Assisi (1181?–1226) came from a wealthy family and had been a fun-loving and worldly young man. He gave up his wealth to “walk in the footsteps” of Jesus. The first Franciscan friars were his followers, and together they lived a life of service to the poor and sick. Francis regarded all nature as the mirror of God, and called animals his brothers and sisters. Famous stories tell of him preaching to the birds and convincing a wolf to stop attacking townspeople, if they, in turn, would feed the wolf. The Church made him a saint in 1228.
a port city in northwestern Russia founded in 1703 by Peter the Great
informal social gathering at which writers, artists, philosophes, and others exchanged ideas
member of the warrior class in Japanese feudal society
José de San Martín (1778–1850) was born in Argentina and educated in Spain. He helped lead the revolutions against Spanish rule in Argentina, Chile, and Peru. He became protector of Peru after its liberation from Spain but resigned in 1822 after conflict with Simón Bolívar. He lived in exile in Europe after his resignation.
a socialist political movement and party that held power in Nicaragua during the 1980s
members of the working class who made the French Revolution more radical; called such because men wore long trousers instead of the fancy knee breeches that the upper class wore
the title of the Inca emperor
The exact dates of King Sargon’s birth and death are unknown, but according to Sumerian historians, he reigned from 2334 B.C. to 2279 B.C. He is known for creating the first empire in Mesopotamia.
custom that called for a widow to join her husband in death by throwing herself on his funeral pyre
make fun of
a split or divide
in medieval Europe, the school of thought that used logic and reason to support Christian belief
careful, step-by-step process used to confirm findings and to prove or disprove a hypothesis
in ancient civilizations, a person specially trained to read, write, and keep records
withdraw
votes cast without announcing them publicly
a subgroup of a major religious group
having to do with worldly, rather than religious, matters; nonreligious
forced separation by race, sex, religion, or ethnicity
King Sejong (1397–1450), Korea’s most celebrated ruler and known as the Great, in 1443 he replaced the complex Chinese system of writing with hangul. His numerous cultural and intellectual accomplishments have led historians to call his reign the Korean Golden Age.
adopting or adapting some cultural traits but discarding others
right of people to choose their own form of government
Indian soldier who served in an army set up by the French or English trading companies
Septimius Severus was born around A.D. 145 in what is today Tripoli. Before his death in 211, he was the emperor who converted the Roman government into a military monarchy. His reign set the stage for other Roman rulers.
in medieval Europe, a peasant bound to the lord’s land
king
Shaka (1787–1828) was a Zulu chief and founder of southern Africa’s Zulu empire.
William Shakespeare (1564–1616), born in England, became a famous poet and playwright during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. Between 1590 and 1613, he wrote 37 plays that are still performed around the world. He invented words and phrases still used today. Like other Renaissance writers, he took a humanist approach to his characters.
slum of flimsy shacks
body of Islamic law that includes interpretation of the Quran and applies Islamic principles to everyday life
a Black township in South Africa where the government killed anti-apartheid demonstrators in 1960
(about 259 B.C.–210 B.C.) was originally named Zhao Zheng. He was the son of the king of the Qin territory. At age 13, Zhao became the king of Qin. He proclaimed himself Shi Huangdi, or “First Emperor.” Using spies, loyal generals, and bribery, he removed the leaders of six other surrounding states to create a unified China under his authoritarian rule. However, the unified China he created was too dependent on Shi Huangdi. The Qin dynasty collapsed four years after his death.
a member of one of the two major Muslim sects; believe that the descendants of Muhammad’s daughter and son-in-law, Ali, are the true Muslim leaders
Muraski Shikibu (c. 973–c. 1014 or 1025) was a lady-in-waiting in the Heian Court. Historians credit her with writing the world’s first full-length novel, The Tale of Genji, written between A.D. 1000 and 1008.
principal religion in Japan that emphasizes the worship of nature
altar, chapel, or other sacred place
member of an Indian religious minority
monotheistic religion founded in the late 1400s by Guru Nanak in the Punjab region of India
Korean dynasty that ruled from 668 to 935
war between China and Japan in which Japan gained Taiwan
melt in order to get the pure matter away from its waste matter
Adam Smith (1723–1790) was a Scottish economist most remembered for his masterpiece, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. His argument for free markets with minimal government interference has helped shape productive economies around the world for more than 200 years. He has been called the father of modern economics and remains one of the most influential economic philosophers in history.
an agreement by which people gave up their freedom to a powerful government in order to avoid chaos
political ideology in which there is a gradual transition from capitalism into socialism instead of a sudden, violent overthrow of the system
movement of the 1800s that urged Christians to do social service
the ability to move in social class
programs provided by the state for the benefit of its citizens
system in which the people as a whole rather than private individuals own all property and operate all businesses
artistic style whose goal was to promote socialism by showing Soviet life in a positive light
Socrates (469 B.C.–399 B.C.) was an Athenian stonemason and philosopher who sought truth by questioning, as described in dialogues written by Plato.
a Polish labor union and democracy movement
In Jewish tradition, Solomon was the son of David, known for building the Temple in Jerusalem. He was also famous for his wisdom. After his death, the Kingdom of Israel was divided into two parts.
Chinese dynasty from 960 to 1279
medieval West African kingdom located in present-day Mali, Niger, and Nigeria
having full, independent power
council of workers and soldiers set up by Russian revolutionaries in 1917
conflict between the United States and Spain in 1898 over Cuban independence
city-state in ancient Greece settled by the Dorians and built as a military state
area in which an outside power claims exclusive investment or trading privileges
deadlock in which neither side is able to defeat the other
Joseph Stalin (1879–1953) (real name: Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili) adopted the name Stalin, meaning “man of steel,” after he joined the Bolshevik underground. He was the sole ruler of the Soviet Union for 33 years. Stalin stood his ground against Hitler and refused to leave Moscow. He eventually forced the Germans into retreat.
now Volgograd, a city in SW Russia that was the site of a fierce battle during WWII
law passed in 1765 by the British Parliament that imposed taxes on items such as newspapers and pamphlets in the American colonies; repealed in 1766
Henry Stanley (1841–1904) was a British explorer of central Africa, famous for the rescue of Dr. David Livingstone and discoveries in the region of the Congo River.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815–1902) was an author, lecturer, and activist who played a major role in the women’s right movement. She drafted speeches and many of the movement’s important documents, including the women’s “Declaration of Rights.” Stanton helped plan and lead the 1848 Seneca Falls Convention. Later in life, she began to focus more on social reforms, including child care, divorce laws, and temperance. Stanton died 18 years before women were granted the right to vote.
in the ancient world, a tall, commemorative monument that was often decorated
sparse, dry, treeless grassland
a fixed salary given to public office holders
share of ownership in a company
Peter Stolypin (1862–1911) was a Russian statesman under Tsar Nicholas II. He served as minister of the interior and president of the Council of Ministers. Although he instituted agricultural reforms that improved the lives of the peasantry, he made enemies on both sides of the political spectrum. He was assassinated in 1911.
narrow water passage
large domelike Buddhist shrine
large landmass that juts out from a continent
the movement to build up areas outside of central cities
a region of western Czechoslovakia
a canal in Egypt linking the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea, which also links Europe to ports in Asia and East Africa
right to vote
Muslim mystic who seeks communion with God through meditation, fasting, and other rituals
Suharto (1921–2008) was a highly ranked Indonesian military official who became the country’s second president. Suharto fought against the Dutch in Indonesia’s independence movement and achieved a distinguished rank in the new country’s government. When Sukarno, the country’s first president, started to institute communist policies, the anti-communist military rebelled. Suharto led purges against communists and a violent coup against Sukarno. Taking power in 1967, he worked to modernize and stabilize the country.
Sukarno (1901–1970) was a freedom fighter and Indonesia’s first president. Involved in the independence movement against the Dutch, Sukarno spent some time jailed or exiled. During World War II, Japan invaded the Indies, and Sukarno cooperated with the new regime. The collapse of Japan at the end of the war enabled Indonesia’s independence, despite Dutch attempts to regain power. As the new country’s president, Sukarno dismantled the parliamentary government and instituted communist policies. A violent coup led by General Suharto deposed Sukarno in 1967.
Suleiman (1494–1566) was a sultan of the Ottoman Empire who ruled from 1520 to 1566. During this time he brought bureaucracy and stability to the empire and advanced the arts, law, and architecture. His military campaigns greatly expanded the scope of the empire.
Muslim ruler
site of the world’s first civilization, located in southeastern Mesopotamia
Sun Yixian (1866–1925), also known as Sun Yat-sen, was the son of poor farmers in a small village. He left a career in medicine to revolt against the Qing government. After a failed uprising, Sun was forced into exile in Japan. In 1911, delegates elected Sun as provisional president of the newly established Republic of China. In 1921, Sun established a Nationalist government in South China and allied with the communists to defeat the warlords.
Sundiata was a West African ruler who was responsible for laying the groundwork for Mali to be a rich and powerful kingdom. He died in 1255.
a member of one of the largest Muslim sects; believe that inspiration came from the example of Muhammad as recorded by his early followers
a nation stronger than other powerful nations
an amount that is more than needed; excess
artistic movement that attempts to portray the workings of the unconscious mind
Suryavarman II was a famous king of Cambodia, who died in 1150 A.D. He built the world’s largest religious structure at Angkor Wat and conquered much of what is now Thailand and Vietnam. He made the capital, Angkor, into one of the great cities of the world at that time.
development that balances people’s needs today with the need to preserve the environment for future generations
development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
Aung San Suu Kyi (1945–) is a human rights leader and Nobel Peace Prize recipient from Myanmar. The daughter of the leader of independent Burma and an ambassador to India, Suu Kyi was inspired to fight for peace and freedom against the military oppressors who had ruled Burma since 1962. She helped to found the independence movement the National League for Democracy, which won a democratic election in 1990 but was silenced by the military. In 2010, Suu Kyi was released from house arrest and won a seat in the legislature. She continues to lead the opposition to the authoritarian rulers and is expected to run for the country’s presidency.
an East African culture that emerged about A.D. 1000; also a Bantu-based language, blending Arabic words and written in Arabic script.
Native American group encountered by Columbus when he first arrived in the West Indies
peasant revolt in China
a tomb built by Shah Jahan for his wife
Islamist fundamentalist faction that ruled Afghanistan for nearly ten years until ousted from power by the United States in 2002
Chinese dynasty from 618 to 907
Tang Taizong (598–649) was an accomplished general, government reformer, historian, Confucian scholar, and artist. These qualities and skills helped him to become China’s most admired emperor.
capital of the Qajar dynasty and present-day Iran
campaign to limit or ban the use of alcoholic beverages
someone who would pay rent to a lord to farm part of the lord’s land
multistory building divided into crowded apartments
famous oath made by on a tennis court by the Third Estate in pre-revolutionary France
capital city of the Aztec empire, on which modern-day Mexico City was built
city that dominated the Valley of Mexico from about A.D. 200 to A.D. 750 and that influenced the culture of later Mesoamerican peoples
Mother Teresa (baptized 1910, died 1997) was the Romanian-born founder of the Order of the Missionaries of Charity, a Roman Catholic group of women dedicated to helping the poor, especially those in India. She won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1979 and was also honored for her work by the Indian government. She was beatified, or named a blessed one, by the Roman Catholic Church in 2003 for her lifetime of commitment to those in need.
Teresa of Avila, St. (1515–1582) gained renown as the author of several books on spiritual matters. She was a key influence during the Catholic Reformation. As a Carmelite nun, she dedicated herself to a simple religious life built on quiet reflection. Teresa dedicated most of her life to the reform of the Carmelite order, founding many convents throughout Spain.
deliberate use of random violence, especially against civilians, to achieve political goals
a massive and bloody offensive by communist guerrillas against South Vietnamese and American forces on Tet, the Vietnamese New Year, 1968; helped turn American public opinion against military involvement in Vietnam
Margaret Thatcher (1925–2013) was Britain’s first female prime minister, serving from 1979 to 1990. Thatcher was a conservative and an avowed opponent of socialism, seeing it as anti-British because it eroded self-reliance. Under Thatcher, the British government sold nationalized industries to private firms. Thatcher also led the country during the Falklands War (1982) with Argentina.
government run by religious leaders
Theodora (497–548) was the wife of the emperor Justinian and was his most trusted advisor. Known for her powerful intelligence and shrewd political insight, Theodora exerted decisive influence in Byzantine political affairs. She is mentioned by name in almost every law passed during Justinian’s reign. Theodora used her position and power to advance her interests, including pioneering efforts for women’s rights. She supported strong laws to end the traffic in young women and revised divorce laws in favor of more benefits to women.
official name of the Nazi party for its regime in Germany; held power from 1933 to 1945
an imaginary line marking 38 degrees of latitude, particularly the line across the Korean Peninsula, dividing Soviet forces to the north and American forces to the south after WWII
(1504 B.C.–1426 B.C.) Thutmose III shared power with his aunt Queen Hatshepsut before becoming pharaoh. He battled to regain Egyptian rule of Syria and Palestine and created Egypt’s largest dynasty.
a culture that thrived in the Andean region from about A.D. 200 to 1000
a huge public plaza at the center of China’s capital, Beijing
Hideki Tojo (1884–1948) was born in Tokyo and was a career military man. He was a general of the Imperial Japanese Army and the 40th prime minister of Japan during most of World War II, from 1941 to 1945. He was directly responsible for the attack on Pearl Harbor, and was arrested and sentenced to death for Japanese war crimes.
shoguns, descended from Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542–1616) who were supreme military leaders; ruled Japan from 1603 through 1869; reunified Japan and reestablished order following a century of civil war and disturbance
capital of Japan
the most sacred text of the Hebrew Bible, includes the first five books
channeling of a nation’s entire resources into a war effort
government in which a one-party dictatorship regulates every aspect of citizens’ lives
Samori Touré (c. 1830–1900) was a Muslim military leader who founded a powerful West African kingdom in the Niger River region and fought against French forces.
a mock battle in which knights would compete against one another to display their fighting skills
situation in which a country imports more than it exports
situation in which a country exports more than it imports
in ancient Greece, a play about human suffering often ending in disaster
treaty of 1763 that ended the Seven Years’ War and resulted in British dominance of the Americas
treaty signed between Spain and Portugal in 1494, which divided the non-European world between them
colonial trade routes among Europe and its colonies, the West Indies, and Africa in which goods were exchanged for enslaved people
an official elected by the plebeians to protect their interests
independent state that has to acknowledge the supremacy of another state and pay tribute to its ruler
payment that conquered peoples may be forced to pay their conquerors
military conflict around 1250 B.C. between Mycenae and Troy, a rich trading city in present-day Turkey, described in Homer’s epic poems, the Illiad and the Odyssey
a wandering poet or singer of medieval Europe
United States policy, established in 1947, of trying to contain the spread of communism
Harry Truman (1884–1972) was the vice president of the United States when Roosevelt died and became the 33rd president upon his death. After being in office for only a few months, Truman made the decision to drop atomic bombs on Japan.
Sojourner Truth (1797–1883) was one of the most well-known African American women during the 19th century. She was born into slavery, and when she gained her freedom in 1826, she changed her name to Sojourner Truth. In 1843, she began travelling the country to spread the truth about injustice and to preach for human rights. Truth was an important figure in several movements—including the women’s rights movement, temperance, racial equality, and prison reform—and she was not afraid to petition the government for reform.
a very large wave caused by an earthquake or very strong wind
private road built by entrepreneurs who charged a toll to travelers to use it
the main ethnic minority group in Rwanda and Burundi
Desmond Tutu (1931–) is an archbishop of the Anglican church and was a leader in the fight against apartheid in South Africa. In 1984 he won the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts.
Osei Tutu was born around 1660 and died in the early 1700s. He was a founder and first ruler of the Asante empire in present-day Ghana. He started as the chief of the small state of Kumasi. But he realized that small separate Asante kingdoms needed to unite in order to protect themselves from powerful Denkyera neighbors.
list of demands given to China by Japan in 1915 that would have made China a protectorate of Japan
in ancient Greece, ruler who gained power by force
German submarine
final set of demands
extreme nationalist
Sunni dynasty of caliphs that ruled from 661 to 750
an international organization formed in 1945 at the end of World War II. Since then, its global role has expanded to include economic and social development, human rights, humanitarian aid, and international law.
the rights that all people should have
right of all adult men to vote
in India, a member of the lowest caste
Pope Urban II (1042–1099) was the leader of the Roman Catholic church at the time the Seljuk Turks were threatening the Byzantine empire. He convened the Council of Clermont, where he launched the First Crusade to win the Holy Land from the Muslims.
the process of fixing up the poor areas of a city
Usman dan Fodio (1754–1817) was a Fulani revolutionary leader, mystic, and philosopher. He led a revolt (1804–1808) to create a new Muslim state, the Fulani empire, in what is now northern Nigeria.
the practice of lending money at interest
idea that the goal of society should be to bring about the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people
idealistic or visionary, usually used to describe a perfect society
Victory in Europe Day, May 8, 1945, the day the Allies won WWII in Europe
valley in Mexico in which the numerous Mesoamerican civilizations, including the Aztecs, arose
Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890) was an artist for only ten years, yet he produced more than 2,000 drawings, sketches, and paintings. Early on, the Impressionists greatly influenced his style. Van Gogh later moved to Arles, France. While there he had a breakdown and committed himself to an asylum. During this time, he began to use more vibrant colors, wide brushstrokes, movement in form and line, and thick layers of paint. He was released in May 1890 and died two months later.
group of elite leaders
in the Vedic society of ancient India, a personality type that determined a person’s occupation; later a category in India’s caste system
in medieval Europe, a lord who was granted land in exchange for service and loyalty to a greater lord
a collection of prayers, hymns, and other religious teachings developed in ancient India beginning around 1500 B.C.
special regard
everyday language of ordinary people
royal French residence and seat of government established by King Louis XIV
block a government action
representative of the king of Spain who ruled colonies in his name
city in central France where a puppet state governed unoccupied France and the French colonies
Queen Victoria (1819–1901) reigned from 1837 until 1901, the longest reign in British history. She symbolized British life during the period now known as the Victorian age. Queen Victoria set a tone of moral respectability and strict social manners. A trend-setter for the growing middle class, she introduced customs such as displaying a Christmas tree (a German practice) and wearing a white wedding gown.
communist rebels in South Vietnam who sought to overthrow South Vietnam’s government; received assistance from North Vietnam
Scandinavian peoples whose sailors raided Europe from the 700s through the 1100s
Virgil (70 B.C.–19 B.C.) was a Roman poet who wrote the Aeneid in 30 B.C. He studied mathematics and other subjects in Rome and Naples and was inspired by Greek poets
chief minister who supervised the business of government in ancient Egypt
Voltaire (1694–1778) was born François-Marie Arouet, but was known as Voltaire. He was an impassioned poet, historian, essayist, and philosopher who wrote with cutting sarcasm and sharp wit. Voltaire was sent to the Bastille prison twice due to his criticism of French authorities and was eventually banned from Paris. When he was able to return to France, he wrote about political and religious freedom. Voltaire spent his life fighting what he considered to be the enemies of freedom, such as ignorance, superstition, and intolerance.
Lech Walesa (b. 1943) helped found and direct the Polish independent trade union, Solidarity, at the Lenin Shipyards in Gdansk, where he was an electrician. After the Polish government crackdown on Solidarity in 1981, he was imprisoned for nearly a year. Walesa was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1983. After the fall of the communist regime in Poland, Walesa was elected president of Poland, serving from 1990 to 1995.
series of wars in which various European nations competed for power in Central Europe after the death of Hapsburg emperor Charles VI
local military rulers
port that is free of ice year round
mutual-defense alliance between the Soviet Union and seven satellites in Eastern Europe set up in 1955
George Washington (1732–1799) was a wealthy Virginia planter before becoming the commander of American forces during the Revolutionary War and first president of the United States. He owned a vast estate named Mount Vernon. Using his skill as a politician, negotiator, and general, Washington was able to keep the American cause of liberty alive during and after the revolution.
James Watt (1736–1819) of Scotland invented the steam engine. James Watt first developed an interest in building models and measuring instruments in the workshop of his father, who built houses and ships. Watt apprenticed with a maker of mathematical instruments. In 1765, Watt worked on his steam engine. It had a separate condenser that helped keep steam from escaping. Later in life, he worked as a land surveyor and then returned to inventing and perfecting machines, until his retirement in 1800.
nuclear, biological, or chemical weapon
a country with a market economy but with increased government responsibility for the social and economic needs of its people
adoption of western ideas, technology, and culture
Eli Whitney (1765–1825) showed mechanical and engineering skill at a young age. After he graduated from Yale College, he headed south where plantation owners learned of his mechanical skill and asked for his help. The cost of the labor to process cotton was too high. In response, Whitney invented the cotton gin, which revolutionized the textile industry and helped the South’s economy. Unfortunately, Whitney did not profit from his invention. He left the South in debt but continued to design new inventions until his death.
William II (1859–1941) was the last German emperor and king of Prussia. He ruled the German empire and the kingdom of Prussia from 1888 to 1918. He led Germany into World War I. An ineffective military leader, he lost the support of his army and fled to exile in the Netherlands in November 1918.
William the Conqueror (1028–1087) became the Duke of Normandy at age 7 and was knighted at age 15. He pressured King Edward of England to name him heir to the throne. Upon Edward’s death, William invaded England and won the throne after the Battle of Hastings in 1066.
a city in northern Germany, where Luther drew up his 95 Theses
right of women to vote
William Wordsworth (1770–1850) was instrumental in launching Romanticism and wrote some of Western literature’s most influential poems. While touring Europe, he encountered the French Revolution, which sparked in him an interest in the plight of the “common man.” His sympathy for people and recognition of societal ills—particularly in urban areas—served as an inspiration for his work and his strong focus on emotion. It also inspired his view of the poet’s role in society and his political ideals.
international organization set up to facilitate global trade
Orville (1871–1948) and Wilbur (1867–1912) Wright were bicycle mechanics who used their knowledge of science and their experience in mechanics to create the first flying machine. After nearly 1,000 flights in gliders and testing in wind tunnels, the brothers built a powered plane. On December 17, 1903, the brothers tested their machine at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. The first flight lasted 12 seconds; the longest flight that day lasted 59 seconds.
(156 B.C.–87 B.C.) was given the name Liu Che at birth. As the eleventh son of the Han emperor Jingdi, he would not have been destined to rule. However, the influence of his relatives changed this and he became emperor in 141 B.C. Determined to expand his dynasty’s rule, he succeeded, though it came at a high cost to his soldiers and people. Liu Che made Confucianism the state religion. He was given the title Wudi (Martial Emperor) upon his death.
Yaa Asantewaa (c. 1850–c. 1920) was the queen mother of the Edweso tribe of the Asante, who led a revolt against British rule starting in 1900.
meeting between Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin in February 1945 where the three leaders made agreements regarding the end of World War II
final destination of Muhammad’s hijra and the home of the first community of Muslims; later renamed Medina; located in the northwest of present-day Saudi Arabia
location where the British army surrendered in the American Revolution
Chinese dynasty ruled by the Mongols from 1279 to 1368; best-known ruler was Kublai Khan
since the late 1800s, powerful banking and industrial families in Japan
Emiliano Zapata (1879–1919) grew up a peasant. In 1897, he began a long struggle against the hacienda system to regain peasant land. After Francisco Madero lost the election to Porfirio Díaz, Zapata joined the revolution and fought for social reform. Zapata built up a strong following and played an essential role in ousting Victoriano Huerta in 1914. After Venustiano Carranza was elected president, he turned on Zapata. Zapata’s revolutionaries went to war with the moderates who supported Carranza. In 1919, Carranza’s army ambushed and killed Zapata.
local elected assembly set up in Russia under Alexander II
the practice of meditation; a school of Buddhism in Japan
large gas-filled balloon
Zheng He (c. 1371–1433) was an admiral in the Ming Chinese navy and diplomat who made his first voyage in 1405 to Vietnam, India, and Africa to both explore and trade. His huge fleet of hundred of junks (Chinese ships) and thousands of sailors carried silk, porcelain, and lacquerware to trade for pearls, spices, ivory, and timber. Zheng He made seven voyages in all, exploring, trading successfully, and thereby motivating Chinese merchants to establish trade centers in Southeast Asia and India.
in ancient Mesopotamia, a large, stepped platform thought to have been topped by a temple dedicated to a city-state’s chief god or goddess
a movement devoted to rebuilding a Jewish state in the ancient homeland
(about 628 B.C.–551 B.C.) Zoroaster was an Iranian religious reformer and founder of Zoroastrianism. He emphasized individual freedom to choose right or wrong and individual responsibility for one’s actions. Zoroaster’s ideas influenced the early development of philosophy.